Introduction
The Caste System is a distinctive and deeply entrenched form of social stratification in India, unique in its hierarchical, hereditary, and religiously sanctioned nature. Originating in ancient times, it has profoundly shaped social organization, individual identity, economic activity, and political dynamics. While legally abolished and significantly impacted by modernization, the caste system continues to exert considerable influence on contemporary Indian society, manifesting in forms of discrimination, identity politics, and affirmative action policies like reservation. This module provides a comprehensive overview of its features, historical evolution, constitutional abolition, and the complex interplay of continuity and change in modern India.
2.3.1: Features & Origins
The caste system is characterized by rigid social divisions with profound implications for individual status and opportunity.
Varna (Theoretical/Prescriptive)
Definition: A four-fold theoretical division of society based on traditional occupations and ritual status, mentioned in ancient scriptures (e.g., Purushasukta of Rig Veda).
Four Varnas:
- Brahmin: Priests, scholars, teachers (highest ritual status).
- Kshatriya: Warriors, rulers, administrators.
- Vaishya: Merchants, farmers, pastoralists.
- Shudra: Laborers, service providers (lowest ritual status, excluded from Vedic rituals).
Nature: A pan-Indian classification, relatively fixed in number (four), and prescriptive in nature, outlining ideal social roles.
Jati (Operational/Empirical)
Definition: A smaller, localized, endogamous group based on birth, traditionally associated with a specific hereditary occupation. Jatis are the actual functioning units of the caste system.
Nature: Numerous (thousands), localized, hierarchical (ranked within regions), hereditary, and largely endogamous.
Relationship to Varna: Jatis are often placed within the Varna framework, but the relationship is not always direct or rigid. Many Jatis do not fit neatly into a Varna category, and their local hierarchy can differ from the theoretical Varna order.
Source: NCERT Class 12, Indian Society; M.N. Srinivas, Caste in Modern India and Other Essays.
2.3.1.2: Key Characteristics
Hierarchy
Definition: A system of graded social status, with Brahmins at the top and Shudras (and later 'Untouchables') at the bottom. Each caste is superior to some and inferior to others.
Impact: Determines social standing, access to resources, and power.
Endogamy
Definition: Strict rule of marriage within one's own caste or sub-caste. Marriages outside the caste were traditionally prohibited and faced severe social sanctions.
Impact: Maintains purity of lineage and perpetuates caste divisions across generations.
Hereditary Occupation
Definition: Traditionally, membership in a caste determined one's occupation. Children were expected to follow their parents' profession.
Impact: Limited occupational mobility and reinforced economic dependency.
Restrictions on Food & Social Interaction (Purity and Pollution)
Definition: Rules regarding who one could accept food from, what type of food could be consumed, and who one could interact with. Higher castes maintained 'purity' by avoiding contact with lower castes, especially those deemed 'polluting'.
Impact: Created social distance, exclusion, and segregation, particularly leading to the practice of 'untouchability'.
2.3.1.3: Debates on Origin
Religious/Traditional Theory
Argument: Caste system originated from divine creation (e.g., Purushasukta hymn describing Varnas emerging from different parts of cosmic man's body).
Critique: Seen as a post-facto justification for an existing social hierarchy.
Racial Theory (Aryan Invasion Theory)
Argument: Proposed by colonial scholars. Caste arose from the conquest of indigenous Dravidian populations by lighter-skinned Aryans, who established a system to maintain their racial purity and dominance. 'Varna' was linked to 'color'.
Critique: Modern historical and genetic research largely discredits a simple Aryan invasion/migration as the sole origin. Genetic mixing was complex, and the system likely evolved over time, incorporating existing tribal divisions.
Occupational Theory
Argument: Caste evolved from the division of labor, where specialized occupational groups gradually became hereditary and stratified.
Critique: While occupation played a role, it doesn't fully explain the rigid hierarchy, ritual purity/pollution aspects, or endogamy rules.
Evolutionary Theory (Synthetic Approach)
Argument: Caste is a complex phenomenon arising from a combination of factors over a long period: indigenous social stratification, absorption of tribal groups, Aryan social organization, occupational specialization, and the role of Brahmanical ideology and state power in its codification and enforcement.
Source: B.R. Ambedkar, Annihilation of Caste; Andre Beteille; D.D. Kosambi, The Culture and Civilisation of Ancient India in Historical Outline.
2.3.2: Untouchability & Discrimination
Untouchability is the most abhorrent manifestation of the caste system, involving extreme social exclusion and degradation.
2.3.2.1: Historical Context
Practices
- Exclusion from Public Spaces: Forbidden from using common wells, temples, schools, or residing within village limits (forced to live in segregated 'Dalit bastis').
- Forced Occupations: Confined to 'unclean' or 'polluting' occupations like manual scavenging, leatherwork, disposal of dead animals, cleaning human waste.
- Social Boycott: Imposed on individuals or families for violating caste norms (e.g., inter-caste marriage).
- Physical Segregation: Maintained ritual distance and physical separation in all social interactions.
Impact
- Denial of Dignity: Stripped individuals of their human dignity and self-respect.
- Lack of Social Mobility: Trapped individuals and generations in a cycle of poverty and inherited low status.
- Economic Exploitation: Forced into exploitative labor, denied land ownership or access to resources.
- Psychological Trauma: Caused deep psychological scars and marginalization.
Source: B.R. Ambedkar's writings; Eleanor Zelliot, From Untouchable to Dalit; NCERT Class 12, Indian Society.
2.3.2.2: Constitutional Abolition
Article 17 of the Indian Constitution
"Untouchability is abolished and its practice in any form is forbidden. The enforcement of any disability arising out of 'Untouchability' shall be an offence punishable in accordance with law." A groundbreaking provision, making India the first country to constitutionally abolish an age-old social practice. It is a fundamental right.
Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955 (PCRA)
Enacted to give effect to Article 17. Prescribes punishment for the enforcement of any disability arising out of untouchability. Defines various acts constituting untouchability offenses.
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 (PoA Act/Atrocities Act)
Enacted to prevent atrocities against SCs and STs, and to provide for special courts for their trial and relief and rehabilitation of victims. Addresses more severe forms of caste-based violence and discrimination beyond 'untouchability'. Amended in 2015 to strengthen provisions.
2.3.2.3: Persistence of Untouchability
Forms of Discrimination
- Manual Scavenging: Continues despite legal prohibition (Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013).
- Social Boycott: Instances for asserting rights or inter-caste marriages.
- Denial of Access: Restrictions to common wells, temples, public spaces, housing.
- Caste-based Violence: Crimes and atrocities against Dalits and Adivasis remain a grim reality.
- Inter-caste Marriage Violence: Honour killings and harassment persist.
Challenges in Implementation of Laws
- Underreporting: Fear of reprisal, police apathy, lack of awareness.
- Police Apathy/Bias: Lack of sensitivity, reluctance to register FIRs.
- Judicial Delays: Slow pace of justice, high pendency of cases.
- Social Acceptance of Discrimination: Deeply ingrained prejudices and power structures.
- Dominant Caste Influence: Local power dynamics often override legal provisions.
Source: NCRB data; Safai Karmachari Andolan reports; Parliamentary Standing Committee Reports.
2.3.3: Changes & Continuities in Caste
The caste system, while retaining its core features, has undergone significant changes due to modern forces.
2.3.3.1: Impact of Modernization
Urbanization & Industrialization
Weakening: Anonymity reduces enforcement of restrictions. Higher occupational mobility, breaking hereditary links. Rise of class.
Persistence: Still influences residential patterns, marriage, informal networks in cities.
Education
Empowerment: Opportunities for social mobility for lower castes, challenging hierarchies.
Awareness: Spreads knowledge of constitutional rights. Creates educated Dalit/OBC middle class.
Democracy
Mobilization: Caste transforms from ritual status to political interest group (associations, vote-bank politics).
Representation: Provides avenues for marginalized castes in elected bodies.
Mass Media & Communication
Awareness: Highlights atrocities, discrimination, and demands for justice.
Mobilization: Facilitates organization for caste-based movements. Can challenge stereotypes.
2.3.3.2: Concepts
Sanskritization (M.N. Srinivas)
Definition: Process by which a 'low' Hindu caste or group changes customs, rituals, ideology, and way of life in the direction of a 'high' caste.
Implication: Positional change within caste system, not structural change. Desire for upward mobility within existing framework. Example: Adopting vegetarianism.
Westernization (M.N. Srinivas)
Definition: Changes in Indian society due to British rule (technology, institutions, ideology, values).
Implication: Leads to secularization, individualism, questioning of caste hierarchy and purity-pollution norms (e.g., inter-caste dining in urban settings).
Dominant Caste (M.N. Srinivas)
Definition: A caste wielding paramount influence in a village or local area due to numerical strength, economic power (land ownership), political influence, and often a relatively high position in local hierarchy.
Impact: Controls local resources, decision-making, can perpetuate discrimination. Example: Jats in Haryana.
2.3.3.3: Caste in Modern Politics
Caste-based Mobilization
Mechanism: Caste groups organize into political associations to articulate demands, bargain for power, and ensure representation.
Impact: Brought marginalized castes into political mainstream, but also intensified caste identities.
Vote-bank Politics
Mechanism: Political parties strategically appeal to specific caste groups, forming alliances or nominating candidates based on caste calculations for electoral gains.
Impact: Leads to short-term gains but can reinforce caste divisions and overshadow broader development issues.
2.3.3.4: Role of Caste Associations, Dalit movements, and identity politics
Caste Associations
Function: Formed to promote interests of specific castes (e.g., educational, economic upliftment). Play role in bargaining, political mobilization, cultural preservation.
Examples: Nadar Mahajana Sangam, All India Jat Mahasabha.
Dalit Movements
Objective: Challenging caste oppression, asserting dignity, demanding social justice, achieving empowerment for SCs.
Key Figures: Jyotiba Phule, B.R. Ambedkar, Periyar E.V. Ramasamy. Strategies: Self-respect, education, political mobilization.
Identity Politics
Definition: Political approach where people of a particular social background form exclusive political alliances.
Impact: Caste identity is primary basis. Enabled marginalized groups to gain political voice, but sometimes leads to fragmentation.
Source: Gail Omvedt, Dalit Visions; Christophe Jaffrelot.
2.3.4: Reservation Policy
Reservation is a form of affirmative action designed to address historical injustices and ensure equitable representation.
2.3.4.1: Constitutional Basis
Article 15: Prohibits discrimination. Arts 15(4), 15(5), 15(6) enable special provisions for advancement of SEBCs/SCs/STs/EWS in education.
Article 16: Equality of opportunity in public employment. Arts 16(4), 16(4A), 16(6) allow reservation for backward classes/SC/ST in appointments and promotions, and EWS.
Article 330, 332: Reservation of seats for SCs and STs in Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies.
Article 335: Claims of SCs and STs to services and posts consistent with efficiency of administration.
Article 338, 338A: National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC) and Scheduled Tribes (NCST).
Article 340: Power of President to appoint a Commission to investigate conditions of socially and educationally backward classes (e.g., Mandal Commission).
Article 341, 342: Power of President to specify Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
2.3.4.2: Types of Reservation
Scheduled Castes (SCs)
15%
Identified based on extreme social and educational backwardness historically associated with untouchability.
Scheduled Tribes (STs)
7.5%
Identified based on distinct culture, geographical isolation, primitive traits, and backwardness.
Other Backward Classes (OBCs)
27%
Identified based on social and educational backwardness (Mandal Commission recommendations).
Economically Weaker Sections (EWS)
10%
Introduced by 103rd Amendment (2019) for citizens not covered under SC/ST/OBC, with income below Rs. 8 lakhs and other criteria.
Overall Limit: The Supreme Court in Indra Sawhney case (1992) set a general 50% ceiling on reservations, which the EWS quota has effectively breached, leading to new legal challenges.
2.3.4.3: Debates on Reservation
Definition: Concept introduced by Supreme Court in Indra Sawhney case (1992). Refers to economically advanced and socially privileged individuals within OBCs excluded from reservation benefits to ensure benefits reach the truly backward.
Debate: Criteria for identification (income, status of parents), constant revision, and demands for its extension to SCs/STs (rejected by SC currently).
Definition: Creating sub-quotas within existing SC, ST, or OBC categories to ensure that the "most backward" within these groups also receive benefits, as benefits often accrue to a few dominant sub-castes.
Debate: Legality, political feasibility, potential for fragmentation. Supreme Court has referred the issue of sub-categorization within SCs/STs to a larger bench (e.g., Davinder Singh case, 2020).
Adequacy: Whether reservation has truly achieved adequate representation for target groups in all sectors, especially higher levels. Benefits often concentrated in a few dominant groups.
Merit Debate: Argument that reservations compromise merit, lower standards. Counter-argument: Merit is not solely based on marks but also social background. Reservations are for social justice and equitable opportunities.
Key Verdicts: Upheld 27% reservation for OBCs in central government jobs. Introduced 'creamy layer' for OBCs. Affirmed 50% ceiling on total reservations. Ruled against reservation in promotions (later overruled by constitutional amendments for SC/ST).
Significance: Landmark judgment that defined the contours of reservation policy in India.
2.3.4.4: Reservation in Promotions, Private Sector
Reservation in Promotions
- Constitutional Amendments: 77th (1995) & 85th (2001) Amendments introduced Article 16(4A) for SC/ST reservation in promotions and consequential seniority.
- Judicial Scrutiny: Repeatedly challenged in SC (M. Nagaraj, Jarnail Singh). Current status: Permitted subject to quantifiable data on backwardness, inadequacy of representation, and administrative efficiency.
Private Sector Reservation Debates
- Demand: Growing demands for reservation in private sector citing lack of opportunities and growth of private sector.
- Arguments For: Addresses historical injustice, ensures inclusive growth, promotes diversity.
- Arguments Against: Interference with market principles, impact on merit and efficiency, constitutional validity issues.
- Policy Initiatives: Some states enacted laws (e.g., Haryana) for locals.
Prelims-ready Notes
- Varna: 4-fold theoretical (Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra).
- Jati: Numerous, local, endogamous, hereditary operational groups.
- Key Caste Features: Hierarchy, Endogamy, Hereditary occupation, Restrictions on food/social interaction (purity/pollution).
- Abolition of Untouchability: Article 17 (Fundamental Right).
- Laws: Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955 (PCRA); SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 (PoA/Atrocities Act), amended 2015.
- Persistence: Manual scavenging (Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013), social boycott, violence.
- Concepts: Sanskritization, Westernization, Dominant Caste (all M.N. Srinivas).
- Reservation Constitutional Basis: Arts 15(4,5,6), 16(4,4A,6), 330, 332, 338, 338A, 340, 341, 342.
- Types of Reservation: SC (15%), ST (7.5%), OBC (27%), EWS (10%). Total capped at 50% (Indra Sawhney). EWS by 103rd Amendment, 2019.
- Reservation Debates: Creamy Layer (OBCs - Indra Sawhney), Sub-categorization, Judicial Pronouncements (Indra Sawhney, M. Nagaraj, Jarnail Singh), Reservation in Promotions (77th & 85th Amendments), Private Sector Reservation.
Prelims Summary Table: Key Acts & Constitutional Provisions
| Act/Provision | Year | Key Purpose/Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Article 17 (Constitution) | 1950 | Abolished Untouchability (Fundamental Right). |
| Protection of Civil Rights Act (PCRA) | 1955 | Penalizes enforcement of disabilities arising from untouchability. |
| SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act (PoA) | 1989 | Prevents and punishes specific atrocities against SC/ST; special courts. Amended 2015. |
| Article 15(4), 16(4) | 1951 | Enables State to make special provisions/reservations for socially/educationally backward classes (including SC/ST). |
| Indra Sawhney vs. UoI (Mandal Case) | 1992 | Upheld 27% OBC quota, introduced 'creamy layer', set 50% reservation ceiling. |
| 77th Constitutional Amendment | 1995 | Inserted Article 16(4A) for reservation in promotions for SC/ST. |
| 85th Constitutional Amendment | 2001 | Provided for 'consequential seniority' in promotion for SC/ST. |
| 103rd Constitutional Amendment | 2019 | Introduced 10% reservation for Economically Weaker Sections (EWS). |
| Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act | 2013 | Prohibits manual scavenging and promotes rehabilitation. |
Mains-ready Analytical Notes
Major Debates/Discussions: Caste: Decline or Adaptation?
Decline Arguments: Impact of urbanization, industrialization, education, democracy (weakening of purity-pollution, hereditary occupations, occupational mobility).
Adaptation/Persistence Arguments: Caste continues to be strong in marriage, politics (caste-based mobilization), social networks, and discrimination (persistence of untouchability, honour killings). It has transformed from a ritual hierarchy to a political identity.
Conclusion: Caste is not declining but adapting, becoming more a political and identity marker, while its traditional ritualistic aspects are weaker in urban areas.
Reservation Policy: Merit vs. Equity
Merit Argument: Reservations compromise merit, leading to inefficiency in administration and dilution of academic standards. It creates unfair advantages.
Equity Argument: Reservations are a compensatory justice measure to correct historical injustices and structural inequalities faced by marginalized communities. 'Merit' cannot be solely defined by test scores without considering social background. Substantive equality is the goal.
Current Standing: Judiciary largely upholds reservation as essential for social justice, but emphasizes the need for creamy layer, data-backed decisions, and balancing with administrative efficiency.
Historical/Long-term Trends, Continuity & Changes
- From Sacred to Secular: Gradual shift from the ritual-religious basis to a more secular, political, and socio-economic identity.
- Rise of the State's Role: From traditional norms to constitutional abolition, anti-discrimination laws, and affirmative action.
- Shift in Caste Mobility: Modernization opened avenues for individual and group mobility through education and political participation.
- Politicization of Caste: From social stratification to a potent force in electoral politics, leading to both empowerment and reinforcement of identities.
Contemporary Relevance/Significance/Impact
- Social Justice Agenda: Remains central to India's social justice agenda, influencing policies.
- Identity Politics: Continues to shape political discourse, electoral outcomes, and demands for rights.
- Continued Discrimination: Despite laws, various forms of discrimination and atrocities persist.
- Economic Disparities: Caste correlates with socio-economic disparities (poverty, land ownership, literacy).
- Urban Challenges: Subtle forms of discrimination (housing, marriage, employment) exist in urban areas.
Real-world/Data-backed Recent Examples (Last 1 Year)
- EWS Reservation Affirmation (Janhit Abhiyan vs. Union of India, Nov 2022): SC upheld 103rd Amendment (10% EWS reservation), significant for future policy and 50% ceiling debates.
- Bihar Caste Survey (Oct 2023): Bihar govt. released caste-based survey data, reigniting national debate on country-wide caste census and proportionate reservation.
- Ongoing Debates on Sub-categorization: SC is still considering legality and mechanism of sub-categorization within reserved categories (e.g., Davinder Singh case, 2020) reflecting internal inequalities.
- NCRB Data on Atrocities against SC/ST (Latest Reports): Continues to show high numbers of registered cases, indicating persistence of caste-based violence.
- Policy Focus on Manual Scavenging: Continued efforts and debates for complete eradication and rehabilitation.
UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs)
Prelims MCQs
UPSC 2016:
Q. Which of the following statements is/are correct regarding the 'Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955'?
- It is based on Article 17 of the Indian Constitution.
- It prescribes punishment for the enforcement of any disability arising out of 'Untouchability'.
- It covers both Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
- (a) 1 and 2 only
- (b) 2 and 3 only
- (c) 1 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (a)
Hint: While it is based on Article 17 and prescribes punishment, it specifically targets "untouchability" (largely affecting SCs) and not atrocities against STs, which are covered by the PoA Act, 1989.
UPSC 2013:
Q. The term 'Sanskritization' was coined by:
- (a) M.N. Srinivas
- (b) S.C. Dube
- (c) Louis Dumont
- (d) Andre Beteille
Answer: (a)
Hint: Direct factual question on a key sociological concept related to caste change.
Mains Questions
UPSC 2019:
"Despite the constitutional provisions and various government initiatives, incidents of caste-based discrimination continue to occur in India. Analyze the reasons for the persistence of casteism and suggest measures to eradicate it." (15 marks)
Direction: Directly asks about the persistence of casteism. Discuss underlying social attitudes (patriarchy, purity-pollution notions), economic factors (land ownership, manual scavenging), political instrumentalization, and implementation challenges of laws (underreporting, police apathy, judicial delays). Suggest comprehensive measures (education, awareness, strict law enforcement, economic empowerment, political will).
UPSC 2018:
"Can the concept of 'creamy layer' be extended to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes? Critically examine." (15 marks)
Direction: Directly on the reservation policy debate. Define 'creamy layer'. Argue for extension (ensuring benefits reach most needy within SC/ST, addressing internal disparities). Argue against extension (SC/ST backwardness is historically unique, linked to untouchability/social exclusion, not just economic status; creamy layer may not exist in same form; fear of further marginalization). Reference relevant SC judgments (Indra Sawhney, M. Nagaraj, Jarnail Singh).