Traditional Tools, Enduring Efficiency
The basic agricultural implements remained largely traditional, demonstrating continuity from earlier times, albeit with subtle improvements and regional variations.
Wooden Plough
The most common tillage implement, often featuring an iron-tipped ploughshare for better penetration and durability. It was universally drawn by oxen, with designs varying based on local soil conditions.
Sickle & Hoe (Khurpi/Kudal)
The iron sickle was essential for harvesting. Hoes like Khurpi and Kudal were widely used for weeding, loosening soil, and other small-scale cultivation tasks, reflecting meticulous field management.
Seed Drill
Though the concept of a seed drill (a tube attached to a plough for sowing seeds in furrows) was known in certain regions (South & West India), its adoption wasn't widespread. Broadcasting (scattering seeds by hand) remained the prevalent method.
Source: Irfan Habib, "Agrarian System of Mughal India"
Overall, no revolutionary changes in basic hand tools occurred, but efficiency was tied to iron quality and local craftsmanship.
Mastering Water: Irrigation Techniques
Irrigation was critical in monsoon-dependent India. Various techniques, both ancient and evolving, ensured water supply for agriculture.
Wells: Ubiquitous Water Sources
Wells were a common and essential source, especially for rabi crops and in areas away from rivers.
- Dhekli (Lever Principle): Simple counterpoise lift for shallow wells.
- Chadas/Charas: Large leather bucket (pur/moth) drawn by oxen walking down a ramp. Common in North India.
- Sakia/Araghatta/Rahat (Persian Wheel): Sophisticated geared mechanism using animal power to lift water continuously via a chain of pots. Widespread by Sultanate/Mughal periods, significantly improving efficiency. Pin-drum gearing was crucial.
Source: Irfan Habib, Satish Chandra
Canals (Nahar): State Patronage
Canal irrigation saw significant development, especially under state patronage in North India.
- Delhi Sultanate: Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq initiated; Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388) undertook extensive construction and repair (Sutlej to Ghaggar - Rajabwah; Yamuna to Hisar - Ulughkhani). Levied water tax (haqq-i-sharb).
- Mughal Period: Shah Nahar (Shah Jahan, from Ravi to Lahore); Nahr-i-Bihisht (Yamuna water to Red Fort, Delhi).
Source: NCERT Class VII, Satish Chandra
Tanks & Reservoirs (Hauz): Rainwater Harvesting
Artificial water storage bodies crucial in undulating terrain, non-perennial river regions, especially Deccan and South India.
- Chola & Vijayanagara Tanks: Renowned for extensive networks, built by royal grants and community efforts (e.g., Kamalapuram tank).
- North/Central India: Hauz-i-Shamsi (Iltutmish), Hauz-i-Alai/Hauz Khas (Alauddin Khalji).
Dams & Anicuts (Bandhs): River Diversion
Small dams or weirs built across rivers/streams to raise water level and divert it into irrigation channels or tanks. Common in hilly terrains. Grand Anicut (Kallanai) on Kaveri, though ancient, remained influential.
Sustainable Practices: Crop & Soil Management
Medieval farmers were aware of practices to maintain soil fertility and maximize yields through smart cropping and manuring.
Crop Rotation & Multiple Cropping
Farmers strategically rotated crops (e.g., cereals with legumes) to maintain soil fertility and control pests. Where irrigation was abundant, multiple cropping (two or three crops a year - Kharif, Rabi, Zaid) was practiced to intensify land use and increase output.
Manuring & Fallowing
Animal dung was the most common manure. Green manure (ploughing in green plants) was also known. Alluvial silt from floods naturally enriched soil. Fallowing (leaving land uncultivated for recovery) was practiced, though less common where land was scarce.
A New Harvest: Introduction of New Crops
The arrival of Europeans, especially the Portuguese, brought several New World crops (from the Americas) that gradually diversified Indian agriculture and cuisine.
Tobacco
Early 17th century, spread rapidly, became important cash crop. (Irfan Habib)
Maize (Corn)
16th-17th century, adopted in hilly/less fertile regions.
Potato
17th century, took longer to become staple.
Chili
Spread rapidly, fundamentally changed Indian cuisine.
Tomato
Introduced, widespread culinary use much later.
Pineapple
Became popular in coastal areas.
Guava
Widely adopted and cultivated.
Cashew Nut
Initially for soil conservation, later valuable for its nut.
Impact of New Crops
- Diversification: Added new food sources and cash crops.
- Dietary Changes: Chili, potato, tomato fundamentally altered Indian cooking.
- Economic Impact: Tobacco, groundnut became commercially important.
- Adaptation: Indian farmers showed remarkable adaptability, though spread was gradual.
Prelims-Ready Notes
Implements
- Wooden plough (iron-tipped), sickle, hoe, spade.
- Seed drill known, not widely adopted.
Crop & Soil Practices
- Crop Rotation & Multiple Cropping (Kharif, Rabi, Zaid).
- Manuring (animal dung, green manure, silt). Fallowing.
New Crops (Post-1500 CE, via Portuguese from New World)
- Tobacco, Maize, Potato, Tomato, Chili, Pineapple, Guava, Cashew Nut, Papaya, Groundnut.
- Gradual spread, diversified agriculture, impacted cuisine and economy.
Summary Table: Irrigation Techniques
| Technique | Description | Key Features/Examples | Period of Prominence |
|---|---|---|---|
| Wells | Drawing water from underground sources. | Dhekli, Chadas, Rahat/Araghatta (Persian Wheel with gearing) | Throughout, Rahat widespread by Sultanate/Mughal |
| Canals | Diverting river water through man-made channels. | Firuz Shah Tughlaq's canals, Shah Nahar (Shah Jahan) | Sultanate, Mughal (esp. North) |
| Tanks/Reservoirs | Storing rainwater or river water in artificial ponds. | Chola tanks, Vijayanagara tanks, Hauz-i-Shamsi, Hauz Khas | Throughout (esp. South & arid) |
| Dams/Anicuts | Weirs/barriers across rivers to raise water level for diversion. | Grand Anicut (Kallanai - ancient but influential), smaller bandhs | Throughout |
Mains-Ready Analytical Notes
Major Debates & Discussions
- Pace of Technological Change: Why was change slow despite innovations like Persian wheel? State policies, social structures, resource availability.
- State vs. Local Initiative: Balance between large state-driven canal projects and local community/individual efforts for wells/tanks.
- Impact of New Crops: Speed and uniformity of adoption, varying by region and crop (e.g., chili vs. potato).
Historical Trends: Continuity & Changes
- Continuity: Wooden plough dominance, reliance on monsoon, traditional lifting, community involvement.
- Changes: Widespread Rahat, state expansion of canals (Sultanate, Mughals), introduction of diverse New World crops, increased monetization of economy and cash crops.
Contemporary Relevance & Value-Added Points
- Water Management Legacy: Traditional systems (tanks, community-managed) offer lessons for sustainable water management today (e.g., Jal Shakti Abhiyan, Mission Kakatiya).
- Crop Diversity: Historical introduction of crops highlights agrobiodiversity. Debates on GM crops parallel historical adaptations.
- State Role in Infrastructure: Historical role in large canals resonates with modern government investments (e.g., PMKSY).
- Archaeological findings (e.g., Vijayanagara water systems) continue to shed light. Grand Anicut remains functional.
UPSC Previous Year Questions
With reference to the economic history of medieval India, the term 'Araghatta' refers to:
- (a) Bonded labour
- (b) Land grants made to military officers
- (c) Waterwheel used for irrigation
- (d) Wasteland converted to cultivated land
Answer: (c)
Explanation: Araghatta refers to the Persian wheel or a similar device used for lifting water from wells for irrigation. Its geared version became prominent in medieval India.
Arrange the following rulers in chronological order of their reign:
- Firuz Shah Tughlaq
- Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
- Alauddin Khalji
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
- (a) 3 – 2 – 1
- (b) 2 – 3 – 1
- (c) 2 – 1 – 3
- (d) 3 – 1 – 2
Answer: (a)
Explanation: The chronological order of their reigns is: Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316), Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-1325), Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388). While Ghiyasuddin initiated canal works and Firuz expanded them, Alauddin is not primarily known for significant canal contributions.
The introduction of which of the following crops in India is largely attributed to the Portuguese?
- Tobacco
- Cotton
- Chili
- Indigo
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
- (a) 1 and 2 only
- (b) 1 and 3 only
- (c) 2 and 4 only
- (d) 1, 3 and 4 only
Answer: (b)
Explanation: Tobacco and Chili were introduced to India by the Portuguese from the New World. Cotton and Indigo were cultivated in India since ancient times.
Discuss the main features of agricultural technology and irrigation systems prevalent in medieval India. How did these systems contribute to agricultural production?
Direction/Value Points:
- Introduction: Importance of agriculture; overview of continuity and change.
- Agricultural Implements: Wooden plough (iron-tipped), sickle, hoe, spade. Seed drill's limited use.
- Irrigation Systems: Wells (Dhekli, Chadas, Rahat/Araghatta), Canals (State initiatives: Firuz Tughlaq, Mughals), Tanks/Reservoirs (Chola, Vijayanagara examples), Dams/Anicuts.
- Farming Practices: Crop rotation, multiple cropping, manuring.
- Contribution to Production: Expanded cultivable area, allowed for rabi crops, increased yield security, improved soil fertility, diversification from new crops.
- Limitations: Regional disparities, monsoon dependence, slow technological change in tools.
- Conclusion: Supported vast agrarian economy and surplus crucial for state.
"The state in medieval India played a crucial, though not exclusive, role in the development of irrigation." Analyze this statement with suitable examples from the Sultanate and Mughal periods.
Direction/Value Points:
- Introduction: Acknowledge indispensable role of irrigation and varied agencies.
- State's Crucial Role (Examples): Firuz Shah Tughlaq's canals (Rajabwah, Ulughkhani, haqq-i-sharb), earlier Tughlaq initiatives, Mughal canal construction (Shah Nahar), large tanks (Hauz-i-Shamsi). Motivations: revenue, famine prevention, legitimization.
- Not an Exclusive Role (Local/Community/Individual): Wells (individual/community), Tanks (community, temple authorities in South India), small local channels/anicuts, Zamindars' investments.
- Interplay: State providing incentives/expertise for local projects.
- Conclusion: State key for large-scale projects, but vast network depended on local initiatives, highlighting multi-layered approach.
Evaluate the impact of the introduction of New World crops by the Portuguese on Indian agriculture and society during the medieval and early modern periods.
Direction/Value Points:
- Introduction: Context of European arrival and Columbian Exchange.
- Key Crops Introduced: Tobacco, maize, potato, chili, tomato, guava, pineapple, cashew, etc.
- Impact on Agriculture: Diversification, cultivation in new niches, new cash crops (tobacco, groundnut).
- Impact on Society/Cuisine: Dietary changes (chili revolutionized cuisine, potato/tomato staples), consumption habits (tobacco smoking), new economic opportunities.
- Pace and Spread: Gradual, varied by region/crop.
- Adaptability: Showcased Indian farmers' willingness to adopt.
- Conclusion: Profound and lasting impact, diversifying agriculture, transforming cuisine, creating new economic opportunities.