Early Medieval India (c. 750 – 1200 CE)

Unveiling Society & Economy: A Journey Through Transition

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Introduction

The period between c. 750 and 1200 CE in Indian history, often termed the "Early Medieval" period, marks a significant transition from ancient to medieval India. It witnessed profound transformations in the socio-political and economic fabric of the subcontinent. Characterized by political fragmentation following the decline of large empires like Harsha's, this era saw the rise of numerous regional kingdoms. Socially, it was marked by the proliferation of jatis, changes in the status of various social groups, and evolving varna hierarchies. Economically, the period is debated, with initial theories of urban decay and trade decline being challenged by evidence of agricultural expansion, vibrant regional economies, and flourishing maritime trade, especially in its later phase. Understanding these general trends is crucial for comprehending the foundations of medieval Indian society and economy.

Source: Synthesized from NCERT, IGNOU, R.S. Sharma, Upinder Singh.

Core Content: General Trends

2.3.1: Social Structure and Changes

The social landscape of early medieval India was dynamic, characterized by the evolution of the caste system, changing social hierarchies, and distinct regional patterns.

2.3.1.1: The "Indian Feudalism" Debate

This is a central historiographical debate regarding the nature of the socio-political structure of early medieval India.

A. Arguments for Feudalism (R.S. Sharma):

  • Land Grants (Brahmadeya, Agrahara, Devadana, Secular grants to officials): Sharma argued that extensive land grants made by rulers to Brahmins, temples, and officials, often with administrative and judicial rights (e.g., collection of revenue, maintenance of law and order), led to the decentralization of power and political fragmentation. (Source: R.S. Sharma, Indian Feudalism)
  • Subjugation of Peasantry: These grants allegedly created a class of landed intermediaries, leading to increased burdens on peasants, including high taxes, compulsory labor (vishti), and restrictions on mobility, akin to serfdom.
  • Decline of Trade and Urbanism (First Phase, c. 600-1000 CE): Sharma posited a decline in long-distance trade, demonetization (scarcity of coins), and decay of urban centers, leading to a "closed economy" or "economic autarky" where local units were self-sufficient.
  • Emergence of a landed aristocracy: This class exercised considerable power over the peasantry and local resources.

B. Arguments against/Modifications (D.C. Sircar, Harbans Mukhia, B.D. Chattopadhyaya):

  • D.C. Sircar: Questioned the direct equivalence with European feudalism, arguing that Indian land grants (e.g., Brahmadeya) were primarily religious and did not always transfer all administrative or judicial powers. He emphasized the continued existence of royal authority. (Source: D.C. Sircar, Landlordism and Tenancy in Ancient and Medieval India)
  • Harbans Mukhia: Argued against the concept of serfdom in India, highlighting relatively higher peasant autonomy and freedom compared to Europe. He pointed to the high fertility of Indian land, which did not necessitate the same level of coercive control over labor as in Europe. He proposed the idea of a "free peasant economy." (Source: Harbans Mukhia, "Was There Feudalism in Indian History?")
  • B.D. Chattopadhyaya: Challenged the notion of widespread urban decay and trade decline. He presented evidence for the persistence and even growth of trade in certain regions, the emergence of new urban centers, and vibrant local economies. He argued that land grants did not necessarily lead to a closed economy. (Source: B.D. Chattopadhyaya, The Making of Early Medieval India)

C. Integrative Approach (B.D. Chattopadhyaya):

  • Chattopadhyaya views the early medieval period as a process of state formation at local and regional levels.
  • Land grants were not just about fragmentation but also tools for political integration, incorporating local chiefs and communities into larger state structures.
  • They facilitated agrarian expansion by bringing new lands under cultivation and introducing advanced agricultural techniques into previously peripheral areas.
  • This period saw the emergence of numerous local ruling lineages who legitimized their power through patronage to Brahmins and temples, and participation in regional power dynamics.

2.3.1.2: Proliferation of Castes (Jatis)

  • Emergence of new jatis:
    • Tribal Integration: Many tribal groups absorbed into agrarian society, assigned new jati statuses (often lower end).
    • Occupational Specialization: New crafts/professions led to new jatis (e.g., Kayasthas).
    • Regional Variations: Jati structure varied considerably across regions.
  • Solidification of Varna Hierarchy: Theoretical four-fold system remained, but reality was proliferation of jatis. Hierarchy (Brahmins at top) became more entrenched.
  • The Kayasthas: Originally scribes/officials, crystallized into a distinct jati, holding significant administrative positions.

2.3.1.3: Position of Brahmins

  • Enhanced Status: High social status and considerable influence.
  • Land Grants (Brahmadeya, Agrahara): Major beneficiaries, providing economic sustenance and local power (often tax-free, with administrative privileges).
  • Role in Legitimizing Rulers: Crucial for new dynasties via coronation ceremonies, genealogies (prashastis), upholding Kshatriya ideal.
  • Advisors and Ministers: Many served as advisors, ministers, and officials in royal courts.

2.3.1.4: The Kshatriya/Rajput Class

  • This period saw the rise and consolidation of the Rajput clans as a dominant warrior aristocracy, particularly in North and Central India.
  • They claimed Kshatriya status, often tracing lineage to mythical heroes or divine origins, facilitated by Brahminical legitimization.
  • Their emergence reflects the broader trend of new ruling groups seeking validation within the varna framework.

2.3.1.5: Status of Women

  • General Decline: Patriarchal norms strong, women largely subordinate. Dharmashastras prescribed limited roles.
  • Early Marriages: Practice of pre-puberty marriage for girls became more common.
  • Sati: Existed and became more prevalent among ruling elites/warrior families, glorified. (Source: Upinder Singh)
  • Devadasi System: Prominent in South Indian temples, initially religious/artistic, later faced exploitation.
  • Instances of Women Rulers (Exceptions): Sugandha, Didda (Kashmir), Akkadevi (Chalukyan), Rudramadevi (Kakatiya).
  • Property Rights (Stridhana): Dayabhaga school (Bengal) more liberal than Mitakshara. (Source: NCERT)
  • Education Limited: Generally restricted, though elite women might have received home instruction.

2.3.1.6: Untouchability

  • Practice became more rigid and widespread.
  • Certain groups (e.g., "polluting" occupations) considered outside varna (antyaja), faced severe discrimination and segregation.
  • Al-Biruni's account (early 11th century) describes the caste system and untouchability. (Source: Al-Biruni's India)

2.3.1.7: Education System

  • Temple-based schools (Ghatikas, Mathas): Temples as learning centers (South India); monasteries attached to temples.
  • Agrahara Villages: Granted to Brahmins, often became centers of traditional learning (Vedas, Puranas, grammar, philosophy).
  • Buddhist Mahaviharas: Nalanda, Vikramshila, Odantapuri were major centers of higher learning (up to c. 12th century), attracted Asian students, but declined later. (Source: NCERT)
  • Curriculum: Largely religious texts, grammar, logic, philosophy, literature. Secular sciences (math, astronomy) also studied.

2.3.2: Economic Conditions

The economy of early medieval India was predominantly agrarian, but also characterized by significant developments in trade, crafts, and urbanization, particularly in the later phase.

2.3.2.1: Agriculture

  • Primary Occupation: Backbone of the economy, engaging vast majority.
  • Expansion of Cultivation: Land grants brought virgin land under cultivation, extended settled agriculture, increased production.
  • Improved Irrigation Techniques:
    • Tanks, Wells, Canals (Cholas in Kaveri delta). (Source: NCERT)
    • Bhojpur Lake (Paramara King Bhoja, 11th century) - massive artificial lake. (Source: ASI)
  • Variety of Crops: Rice, wheat, barley, millets, pulses, cotton, sugarcane, spices. Arab travelers noted abundance.
  • Condition of Peasantry:
    • Burden of Taxation: Significant portion of produce as land revenue (bhaga) + other dues.
    • Forced Labour (Vishti): In some areas, though debated.

2.3.2.2: Land Tenure

A complex system of land rights existed:

  • Royal Land (Crown Land): Directly controlled by the king.
  • Land Grants: Large tracts granted to Brahmins (Brahmadeya, Agrahara), temples (Devadana), officials/feudatories. Often involved transfer of revenue rights and sometimes administrative/judicial authority.
  • Communal Land: Village communities held common lands (pasture, forests).
  • Private Land: Evidence of individual/family ownership, subject to state claims.

Hierarchical rights and obligations over land and its produce, from king to cultivator.

2.3.2.3: Trade and Commerce

A. Debate on Urban Decay & Trade Decline vs. Flourishing Trade:
  • R.S. Sharma's "First Phase" (c. 600-1000 CE): Argued for decline in foreign trade, demonetization, urban decay, leading to localized economy.
  • Counter-Arguments/Later Phase (after 1000 CE): Chattopadhyaya, Chakravarti highlighted evidence for revival/growth of internal/maritime trade, increased coin minting, new urban centers, vibrant local economies. (Source: Ranabir Chakravarti)
B. Internal Trade:
  • Local Markets (Hattas/Mandapikas): Crucial for exchange of produce and crafts.
  • Regional Trade Routes: Land and riverine routes connected regions (Ganga, Yamuna, Godavari, Kaveri etc.).
  • Commodities: Food grains, salt, metals, textiles, spices, luxury goods.
C. Maritime Trade: Significant activities.
  • i. With Southeast Asia: Chola Naval Expeditions (Rajendra Chola I against Srivijaya) to protect trade. Export: textiles, spices, aromatics, precious stones. Import: camphor, tin, luxury items. (Source: NCERT)
  • ii. With West Asia/Arab World: Arab merchants dominant. Export: spices, textiles, precious stones, ivory. Import: horses (crucial for cavalry), dates, incense. Major Hubs: Malabar Coast, Gujarat Coast (Cambay, Bharuch), Konkan.
  • iii. With China: Chola Embassies (Rajaraja I, Rajendra I). Export: cotton textiles, spices, aromatics. Import: Chinese silk, porcelain, lacquerware.
D. Merchant Guilds (Shrenis/Pugas): Powerful organizations.
  • South India: Manigramam (inland/overseas), Ayyavole (Five Hundred Svamis - influential trans-regional), Nanadesi (itinerant), Anjuvannam (foreign merchants on west coast).
  • North India: Shreni and Nigama continued.
  • Roles: Organized caravans, protected trade routes, fixed prices, bankers, participated in local administration/temple endowments.

2.3.2.4: Urbanization

  • Mixed Picture: Sharma's initial decay view nuanced by later research.
  • Decline of some older centers: Pataliputra, Vaishali.
  • Emergence of new ones:
    • Temple Towns: Thanjavur, Kanchipuram, Puri (economic/social hubs).
    • Administrative Centers/Capitals: Kanauj, Manyakheta, Anhilawada.
    • Port Towns: Cambay, Kollam/Quilon (maritime trade).
    • Market Towns (Mandapikas): Specialized exchange centers.

2.3.2.5: Coinage

  • Regional Variations: Systems varied significantly.
  • Debasement/Scarcity (Early Phase): Sharma noted scarcity of high-value metallic currency, debasement (c. 600-1000 CE).
  • Revival of Gold Coinage: Kalachuris (Gangeyadeva), Paramaras, Chandelas, and significantly Cholas (kalanju or pon). (Source: John S. Deyell)
  • Silver and Copper Coins: In circulation (e.g., Gadhaiya coins in Western India).
  • Cowries: Widely used for smaller transactions (especially Bengal, Odisha).

2.3.2.6: Crafts and Industries

Wide variety flourished, often organized along caste and guild lines.

Textiles: India renowned.
  • Cotton: Fine textiles produced (Bengal, Gujarat, Deccan).
  • Silk: Silk weaving practiced, raw silk sometimes imported.
Metalwork:
  • Iron: High-quality iron and steel (Wootz steel from South India). Tools, implements, weapons. Iron Pillar (earlier) attests skill.
  • Bronze: Exquisite sculptures (Chola Nataraja) show mastery in casting. (Source: NCERT)
Other Crafts:
  • Stone Carving: High demand for temple architecture.
  • Ivory Work: Specialized craft.
  • Shipbuilding: Implied by active maritime trade.
  • Pottery, jewelry, leatherwork, wood carving.

3. Prelims-ready Notes

  • Indian Feudalism Debate: Pro-Feudalism (R.S. Sharma: Land grants, fragmentation, peasant subjugation, trade decline - early). Anti-Feudalism/Modifications (Mukhia: peasant autonomy; Chattopadhyaya: trade persistence, state formation; Sircar: grants not like fiefs).
  • Caste Proliferation: New jatis from tribes, occupational groups (e.g., Kayasthas). Varna solidified.
  • Brahmins: Enhanced status via land grants (Brahmadeya, Agrahara), legitimizers of rulers.
  • Kshatriyas/Rajputs: Rise as warrior aristocracy.
  • Women: Generally subordinate, early marriage, Sati (elites). Exceptions: Rulers (Didda, Rudramadevi), Stridhana. Devadasi system in South.
  • Untouchability: Increased rigidity.
  • Education: Temple schools (ghatikas, mathas), Agrahara villages, Mahaviharas (Nalanda, Vikramshila - early part).
  • Agriculture: Main occupation, expansion via land grants, irrigation (Chola canals, Bhojpur lake). Peasantry: high taxes, vishti.
  • Land Tenure: Royal, grants (Brahmadeya, Devadana), communal, private. Complex rights.
  • Trade Decline vs. Flourishing: Sharma (decline c.600-1000 CE) vs. Chattopadhyaya (revival/growth after 1000 CE).
  • Maritime Trade: SE Asia (Chola), West Asia/Arabs (horses), China.
  • Merchant Guilds: Powerful. South: Manigramam, Ayyavole (Five Hundred), Nanadesi, Anjuvannam. North: Shreni, Nigama.
  • Urbanization: Decline of old, rise of new (temple towns, administrative centers, ports).
  • Coinage: Regional, some debasement, but gold revival (Kalachuris, Cholas - Kalanju). Cowries used.
  • Crafts: Textiles (cotton, silk), metalwork (iron, Chola bronzes), stone carving, shipbuilding.

Summary Table: Key Debates & Features

Feature R.S. Sharma's View (Primarily Early Phase) Counter-Views/Later Phase Developments General Consensus/Nuance
Political Structure Feudalism, political fragmentation, weakening of state State formation, integrative processes, varying degrees of central control Rise of regional powers, complex lord-vassal relationships, not identical to European feudalism.
Peasantry Subjugation, serfdom-like conditions, restricted mobility Peasant autonomy (Mukhia), variation in obligations Heavy tax burden, some forced labor (vishti), but not universal serfdom.
Trade & Urbanism Decline (c. 600-1000 CE), demonetization, urban decay Persistence/growth of trade (especially after 1000 CE), new urban centers Initial decline in some areas, followed by significant revival and growth of trade & towns.
Coinage Scarcity, demonetization (early phase) Revival of gold/other coinage (later phase), active minting by some dynasties Regional variations, use of cowries, metal coinage present, revival in later period.

4. Mains-ready Analytical Notes

Major Debates/Discussions

The "Indian Feudalism" Debate:

  • Pros (Sharma): Framework for political decentralization, agrarian economy, social hierarchy. Emphasizes impact of land grants.
  • Cons/Modifications (Sircar, Mukhia, Chattopadhyaya): Highlights differences from European model, peasant agency, continued trade, integrative aspects of land grants. Critiques over-generalization.
  • Analysis: "Feudalism" contentious. Features like land grants, decentralized authority existed, but direct parallels misleading. Chattopadhyaya's "integrative state formation" offers nuanced understanding.

Debate on Urban Decay & Trade Decline:

  • Sharma's Thesis: Decline in long-distance trade led to ruralization and a closed economy.
  • Revisionist View (Chattopadhyaya, Chakravarti): Emphasizes regional variations, new trade networks (especially maritime), role of merchant guilds, emergence of new urban centers ("third urbanization").
  • Analysis: Complex picture. Some decline initially, but new ones emerged, especially with Arab sea power and SE Asian trade. Post-1000 CE shows considerable commercial dynamism.

Historical/Long-term Trends, Continuity & Changes

Continuity:

  • Varna system as ideological framework.
  • Importance of agriculture as economic base.
  • Tradition of land grants for religious/administrative purposes.
  • Significance of temple as socio-economic institution.

Changes:

  • Proliferation of jatis, making caste structure more complex and localized.
  • Rise of new ruling elites (e.g., Rajputs) and their legitimization.
  • Shift in trade dynamics: decline of Roman trade replaced by Arab and Southeast Asian networks.
  • Emergence of regional kingdoms with distinct cultural identities.
  • Growth of regional languages and literature.
  • Development of new styles in art and architecture (e.g., Nagara, Dravida temple styles).

Contemporary Relevance/Significance/Impact

  • Understanding the roots of India's diverse social structure (jati system, regional variations).
  • Appreciating the long history of India's maritime trade and global connections.
  • The legacy of temple architecture and art forms.
  • Historical precedents for land tenure systems and agrarian relations.
  • The "feudalism" debate informs discussions on state power, decentralization, and local governance.

Real-world/Data-backed Recent Examples:

  • Discussions around land rights, farmer distress, and decentralized governance (Panchayati Raj) echo historical patterns.
  • ASI continues to unearth sites, refining understanding (e.g., Keezhadi excavations for early South Indian urbanism relevant to continuum).
  • India's Act East Policy & maritime security (SAGAR) reflect historical Indian Ocean engagement.
  • Recognition of traditional crafts through GI tags (e.g., Chola-era bronze casting techniques inspire contemporary artisans, Kanchipuram silks).
  • UNESCO World Heritage Sites from this period (Chola Temples, Khajuraho, Konark). Recent: Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas (2023) though slightly later peak, rooted in these trends.

5. Current Affairs and Recent Developments (Last 1 year)

  • Archaeological Discoveries: Monitor PIB and major newspaper archaeology sections for specific finds related to c. 750-1200 CE (e.g., extensions of existing sites, new inscriptions). Discoveries in Keezhadi (Tamil Nadu) contribute to understanding early South Indian urbanism/trade continuity.
  • GI Tags: Continued awarding of GI tags for traditional crafts with historical lineages from this period (e.g., Udupi Sarees, certain temple jewellery styles). Existing tags for Chola Bronzes, Kanchipuram Silks, etc., remain relevant for historical continuity.
  • UNESCO Recognition: Inclusion of Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas (2023) in UNESCO World Heritage List highlights continued focus on India's temple architecture (though peak slightly post-1200 CE, rooted in this period's traditions).
  • Government Schemes:
    • PRASHAD Scheme: Focuses on developing pilgrimage sites, many with early medieval temples.
    • Adopt a Heritage Scheme: Involves private sector in developing tourism at heritage sites, including those from this era.
  • Academic Research: New papers/books continually refine understanding of "Indian Feudalism" or trade patterns (e.g., in The Indian Economic and Social History Review, Studies in History).

6. UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Prelims MCQs:

1. With reference to the economic history of medieval India, the term 'Araghatta' refers to: (UPSC CSE 2016)

  • (a) Bonded labour
  • (b) Land grants made to military officers
  • (c) Waterwheel used for irrigation
  • (d) Wasteland converted to cultivated land

Answer: (c) Waterwheel used for irrigation

Hint/Explanation: The 'Araghatta' or Persian wheel was a significant technological advancement in irrigation during the medieval period, contributing to agricultural expansion.

2. Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2003 - modified for relevance)

  • 1. The Cholas defeated the Srivijaya empire in Southeast Asia.
  • 2. The Cholas were known for their powerful navy.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  • (a) 1 only
  • (b) 2 only
  • (c) Both 1 and 2
  • (d) Neither 1 nor 2

Answer: (c) Both 1 and 2

Hint/Explanation: Rajendra Chola I's naval expeditions against Srivijaya (c. 1025 CE) are well-documented, showcasing Chola naval prowess and their interest in controlling sea trade routes.

3. The 'Ayyavole,' 'Manigramam,' and 'Nanadesi' of early medieval India were: (Based on common UPSC question types)

  • (a) Important ruling dynasties of South India
  • (b) Prominent merchant guilds
  • (c) Styles of temple architecture
  • (d) Categories of land grants

Answer: (b) Prominent merchant guilds

Hint/Explanation: These were well-known and powerful merchant organizations active in South India and beyond, playing a crucial role in internal and maritime trade.

Mains Questions:

1. Critically evaluate the "Indian Feudalism" thesis. Do you agree that the early medieval period was marked by political fragmentation and economic decline? (Similar to UPSC 1990)

Direction/Value Points:

  • Explain R.S. Sharma's arguments (land grants, peasant subjugation, fragmentation, decline).
  • Present counter-arguments by Sircar, Mukhia, Chattopadhyaya (nature of grants, peasant autonomy, trade persistence, integrative role).
  • Discuss evidence for agrarian expansion, state formation.
  • Analyze trade: initial decline in some areas, significant revival esp. maritime after 1000 CE, merchant guilds.
  • Conclude: "Indian Feudalism" not perfect fit; complex period with fragmentation & integration, decline & growth.

2. Discuss the salient features of trade and commerce in early medieval India (c. 750-1200 CE) with special reference to the role of merchant guilds. (Based on UPSC 1985)

Direction/Value Points:

  • Address the debate: Sharma's decline vs. Chattopadhyaya/Chakravarti's revival.
  • Internal Trade: Local markets (hattas), regional routes, commodities.
  • Maritime Trade: SE Asia (Chola), West Asia (Arab, horse trade), China. Key ports, commodities.
  • Role of Merchant Guilds: Ayyavole, Manigramam, Nanadesi, Anjuvannam. Their organization, functions (trade, banking, admin, endowments), trans-regional reach.
  • Coinage: Briefly mention status and role.
  • Conclude on dynamism of trade, especially in later period.

3. "The early medieval period in India was not one of urban decay but of urban renewal and the emergence of new kinds of urban centres." Comment. (UPSC 2002, adapted)

Direction/Value Points:

  • Acknowledge initial argument of urban decay (Sharma) for some older cities.
  • Provide evidence for emergence of new urban centers: temple towns (Thanjavur, Kanchipuram), administrative capitals (Manyakheta, Kanauj), port towns (Cambay, Kollam), market centers (mandapikas).
  • Explain factors leading to their growth (royal patronage, religious endowments, commercial activities).
  • Discuss nature and functions of these new towns.
  • Conclude: urban landscape transforming, not simply decaying.

7. Trend Analysis (Last 10 Years)

Prelims:

  • Increased focus on specific terms: Administration, economy, society (e.g., 'Araghatta', guilds, land grants).
  • Conceptual Questions: Understanding debates (Indian Feudalism indirectly), nature of Chola state.
  • Art and Culture Linkages: Temple architecture, philosophy, literary works.
  • Regional Focus: South Indian history (Cholas, Pandyas, Chalukyas) – admin, trade, culture.
  • Shift from purely dynastic to socio-economic & cultural history.

Mains:

  • Analytical and Interpretative: "discuss," "critically evaluate," "comment" types, requiring historiographical debate understanding.
  • Socio-Economic Changes: Frequently on social structure (caste, women), economic conditions (agriculture, trade, urbanization), interlinkages.
  • Continuity and Change: Tracing developments, highlighting continuity from ancient, significant changes.
  • Interdisciplinary Approach: Connecting political developments with socio-economic and cultural trends.
  • Focus on Processes: State formation, agrarian expansion, jati proliferation, commercialization.
  • Example (Implicit): Understanding "Indian Feudalism" for broader socio-political questions; "third urbanization" (UPSC CSE 2014).

8. Original MCQs for Prelims

1. Consider the following statements regarding the social structure of Early Medieval India (c. 750-1200 CE):

  • 1. The Kayasthas, a group of scribes, emerged as a distinct and influential jati during this period.
  • 2. Land grants like Brahmadeya exclusively involved the transfer of land and not administrative or judicial rights.
  • 3. The practice of Sati was widespread across all sections of society and regions.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  • (a) 1 only
  • (b) 1 and 2 only
  • (c) 2 and 3 only
  • (d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (a) 1 only

Explanation: Statement 1 is correct; Kayasthas consolidated as a jati. Statement 2 is incorrect; land grants often included transfer of administrative/judicial rights, a key point in the feudalism debate. Statement 3 is incorrect; Sati was more prevalent among ruling elites/warrior families and not uniformly widespread across all sections or regions.

2. Which of the following accurately describes the "Ainnurruvar" or "Five Hundred Svamis of Ayyavolepura" in the context of Early Medieval South India?

  • (a) A council of five hundred Brahmin scholars advising the Chola kings on Dharmashastra.
  • (b) A powerful trans-regional merchant guild involved in extensive inland and overseas trade.
  • (c) A military contingent of five hundred elite warriors forming the personal guard of the Pallava rulers.
  • (d) The collective name for five hundred major temples endowed by the Pandya dynasty.

Answer: (b) A powerful trans-regional merchant guild involved in extensive inland and overseas trade.

Explanation: The Ayyavole (Ainnurruvar) was one of the most prominent and far-reaching merchant guilds of South India, known for their extensive trade networks.

9. Original Descriptive Questions for Mains

1. "The economic landscape of Early Medieval India (c. 750-1200 CE) was a complex tapestry of agrarian expansion, resurgent trade, and evolving urban patterns, rather than one of uniform decline." Elaborate with suitable examples.

Key Points/Structure for Answering:

  • Introduction: Briefly touch upon older view of decline (Sharma) and shift towards dynamism.
  • Agrarian Expansion: Land grants, irrigation improvements (Chola canals, tanks), crop diversity.
  • Resurgent Trade: Internal (local markets, regional networks); Maritime (SE Asia, Arab, China, key ports, commodities); Merchant guilds (Ayyavole, Manigramam).
  • Evolving Urban Patterns: Decline of some old, emergence of new (temple towns, administrative capitals, port towns), their functions.
  • Coinage: Regional variations, revival in later phase.
  • Conclusion: Reiterate complexity and dynamism, argue against monolithic decline, highlight regional/phased developments.

2. Analyze the significant changes in the social structure of India during the early medieval period (c. 750-1200 CE). How did these changes impact the position of Brahmins and women?

Key Points/Structure for Answering:

  • Introduction: Period witnessed significant social transformations.
  • Proliferation of Jatis: Tribal integration, occupational jatis (Kayasthas), solidification of varna, increased untouchability rigidity.
  • Rise of New Ruling Elites: Kshatriya/Rajput consolidation and legitimization.
  • Impact on Brahmins: Enhanced status via land grants, legitimizing rulers, advisors/ministers.
  • Impact on Women: General subordination, early marriage, Sati (elites), Devadasi system. Counter-points: women rulers (Didda), Stridhana, varying regional customs, limited education.
  • Conclusion: Social structure more complex and hierarchical; Brahmins gained, women's status generally declined (with exceptions).