The Dawn of Turko-Afghan Rule
The period from 1206 CE to 1414 CE marks a significant phase in Indian history, witnessing the establishment and consolidation of the Delhi Sultanate under three major dynasties: the Mamluks (Slave), the Khaljis, and the Tughlaqs. These dynasties laid the foundation of Turko-Afghan rule in India, introducing new administrative, military, economic, and cultural systems. While the Mamluks initiated the process of establishing a new state, the Khaljis expanded its boundaries and centralized power, and the Tughlaqs, despite ambitious projects and initial strength, saw the beginning of its disintegration. This era was characterized by constant struggles for power, Mongol threats, innovative governance, and significant socio-economic and architectural developments.
Sources: NCERT Class 7 "Our Pasts - II"; Satish Chandra, "History of Medieval India"; IGNOU BA History Elective EHI-03
Core Dynasties: Rise and Fall
3.1.1: The Mamluk/Slave Dynasty (Ilbari Turks) (c. 1206 – 1290 CE)
The Mamluk dynasty, also known as the Slave dynasty, was the first line of rulers of the Delhi Sultanate. The term 'Mamluk' refers to a slave soldier of Turkic origin who had converted to Islam.
Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206-1210)
- Turkish slave of Muhammad Ghori, became his viceroy.
- Assumed power after Ghori's assassination in 1206.
- Received manumission in 1208; known as 'Lakh Bakhsh'.
- Initiated Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque & Qutb Minar.
- Died in 1210 playing Chaugan (polo).
Shams-ud-din Iltutmish (1210/11-1236)
- Son-in-law of Aibak, considered "Real Founder" of Sultanate.
- Secured throne by defeating Yaldoz (1215-16) & Qabacha (1228).
- Astutely avoided Mongol invasion (Chengiz Khan) in 1221.
- Received investiture from Abbasid Caliph (1229) for legitimacy.
- Formally made Delhi capital, organized Turkan-i-Chahalgani.
- Introduced silver Tanka & copper Jital, formalized Iqta system.
- Completed Qutb Minar, built his tomb.
Raziya Sultan (1236-1240)
- Nominated by Iltutmish, first & only Muslim woman ruler.
- Discarded purdah, led armies, asserted authority.
- Favored non-Turk Jamal-ud-din Yaqut, alienating Turkish nobles.
- Overthrown by Turkan-i-Chahalgani, killed in 1240.
- Highlighted conflict between monarchy & Turkish nobility.
Ghiyas-ud-din Balban (1266-1287)
- Rose as Naib-i-Mamlakat during Nasir-ud-din Mahmud's reign.
- Systematically broke the power of Turkan-i-Chahalgani.
- Propounded strong theory of kingship: Zil-i-Ilahi (Shadow of God).
- Introduced Sijda & Paibos; adopted "blood and iron" policy.
- Reorganized army (Diwan-i-Arz), strengthened frontier forts.
- Maintained efficient spy system (barids).
Decline of Mamluks
Balban's death (1287) led to weak successors (Kaiqubad, Kayumars), paralysis of administration, and noble intrigues. This instability opened the door for the Khaljis, a non-Turkish group, who eventually overthrew the Mamluks, marking the end of the dynasty in 1290 CE.
3.1.2: The Khalji Dynasty (c. 1290 – 1320 CE) – The "Khalji Revolution"
The "Khalji Revolution" (Prof. Mohammad Habib)
- End of Turkish monopoly on high offices; inclusion of non-Turks (Indo-Muslims, Afghans) in nobility.
- Assertion of monarchical power over nobility and Ulema.
- Shift towards a more expansionist and imperialistic policy.
Jalaluddin Khalji (1290-1296)
- Founder of Khalji dynasty, overthrew Mamluks.
- Adopted a policy of leniency and reconciliation.
- Repelled Mongol invasion; some Mongols settled (New Muslims).
- Assassinated by his nephew, Alauddin Khalji, after Devagiri raid.
Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316) – Zenith of Sultanate Power
Accession: Treacherously assassinated Jalaluddin in 1296.
Theory of Kingship: Asserted absolute monarchy; "Kingship knows no kinship." Declared independence from Ulema's advice in state matters. Took title Sikandar-i-Sani (Second Alexander).
North India: Gujarat (1299 - acquired Malik Kafur), Ranthambore (1301), Chittor (1303), Malwa (1305), Siwana (1308), Jalore (1311).
Deccan Campaigns (Malik Kafur): Devagiri (Yadavas, 1307-08), Warangal (Kakatiyas, 1309-10 - acquired Koh-i-Noor as per later traditions), Dwarasamudra (Hoysalas, 1310-11), Madurai/Mabar (Pandyas, 1311). Policy primarily for wealth/tribute.
Successfully repelled multiple formidable Mongol invasions (e.g., by Saldi, Qutlugh Khwaja, Targhi). Strengthened frontier defenses, repaired old forts, built new ones (Siri Fort in Delhi). Maintained a large, well-equipped army.
Administrative: Confiscated jagirs/religious grants. Prohibited noble gatherings/marriages without permission. Efficient spy system (barids, munhis). Ban on alcohol/gambling.
Military: Large permanent standing army paid in cash. Introduced Dagh (branding of horses) and Chehra/Huliya (descriptive roll of soldiers).
Market Control (Price Regulation): Fixed prices for essential commodities (food grains, cloth, horses). Established regulated markets: Shahna-i-Mandi (Grain), Sarai-Adl (Cloth etc.). Appointed Diwan-i-Riyasat (overall controller). Reasons debated: maintain large army cheaply, public welfare, curb inflation.
Land Revenue: Measurement of land (Zabita system) with Biswa as unit. State demand (Kharaj) increased to 50% in Doab. Abolished privileges of Khuts, Muqaddams, Chaudhuris. Imposed Ghari (house tax) & Charai (pasture tax). Created Diwan-i-Mustakhraj for revenue arrears.
Architectural & Patronage: Built Alai Darwaza, Siri Fort, Hauz Khas. Patronized Amir Khusrau and Mir Hasan Dehlavi.
Decline of Khaljis
Alauddin's last years saw Malik Kafur's dominance. Weak successors like Shihabuddin Umar and Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah Khalji (who declared himself Caliph) led to instability. Khusrau Khan, an Indian convert, seized power briefly before being overthrown by Ghazi Malik (Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq), ushering in the Tughlaq dynasty in 1320 CE.
3.1.3: The Tughlaq Dynasty (c. 1320 – 1414 CE) – Ideology, Experimentation, and Disintegration
The Tughlaq dynasty ruled for nearly a century, marked by ambitious experiments, territorial expansion to its zenith, and then rapid disintegration.
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-1325)
- Founder (Ghazi Malik), restored order after Khalji turmoil.
- Liberal revenue policy, reduced state demand, encouraged cultivation.
- Initiated construction of canals for irrigation.
- Annexed Warangal (1323), led expeditions to Bengal.
- Built Tughlaqabad city. Died in 1325 (controversial).
Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325-1351) – The "Wise Fool"
Character: Highly intelligent, well-read, innovative; often lacked practical judgment and patience.
i. Taxation in Doab (1325-27): Increased revenue coincided with severe famine, leading to distress & revolts. Failed due to harsh implementation & timing.
ii. Transfer of Capital to Daulatabad (1327): From Delhi to Devagiri (Daulatabad) for strategic control & Mongol defense. Forced migration caused immense suffering. Abandoned around 1335 due to practical difficulties.
iii. Token Currency (1329-30): Bronze/copper coins issued for silver Tanka value to counter silver shortage. Failed disastrously due to mass counterfeiting and lack of state minting monopoly. Huge drain on treasury upon withdrawal.
iv. Khurasan Expedition (c. 1329-33): Ambitious plan to conquer Khurasan, raised massive army. Abandoned due to political changes & logistics, causing unemployment & financial strain.
v. Qarachil Expedition (Kumaon Hills, c. 1330-34): Objective to secure northern frontiers. Disaster due to difficult terrain & weather, suffered heavy losses.
Agrarian: First Sultan to take systematic measures. Established Diwan-i-Amir-Kohi. Provided Taccavi loans (Sondhar). Failed due to corruption, famine, short-term nature.
Religious: Initially tolerant (dialogues with yogis, Jain saints). Appointed non-Muslims to posts. Sought Caliph's manshur (1341). Later became more orthodox, enforced Islamic laws strictly.
Rebellions & Disintegration: Reign marked by unprecedented rebellions (Ma'bar, Bengal, Warangal). Led to the foundation of Vijayanagara (1336) and Bahmani (1347) Sultanates.
Foreign Accounts: Ibn Battuta, Moroccan traveler, visited his court (1333/34-1342), providing detailed accounts in his Rihla.
Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388) – Appeasement, Welfare, and Orthodoxy
Accession: Cousin of MBT, chosen by nobles & theologians at Thatta.
Policy of Appeasement: Placed nobility (hereditary iqtas & army posts), Ulema (influence in state, revenue-free lands), and army (paid by land assignments).
Revenue Reforms: Abolished 24 un-Islamic cesses (abwabs). Imposed four taxes sanctioned by Islamic law: Kharaj, Zakat, Jizya (extended to Brahmins), Khams (state took 4/5ths). Imposed Haqq-i-Sharb (water tax) on irrigated lands.
Agriculture Promotion: Dug extensive network of canals (Yamuna, Sutlej) for irrigation. Promoted horticulture (1200 fruit gardens).
Welfare Measures: Diwan-i-Khairat (charity, marriage aid). Diwan-i-Bandagan (slave department, 180,000 slaves trained in crafts). Dar-ul-Shifa (charitable hospitals). Employment bureau.
Public Works: Great builder. Founded new towns: Jaunpur, Firozpur, Hisar Firoza, Firozabad (new capital). Repaired Qutb Minar, Hauz Khas. Transported Ashokan pillars to Delhi.
Religious Policy: Staunch Sunni Muslim, guided by Ulema. Imposed Jizya on Brahmins. Persecuted Shias & non-conformist Muslims. Destroyed some newly built Hindu temples.
Patronage of Learning: Wrote autobiography (Futuhat-i-Firuz Shahi). Patronized scholars (Barani, Afif). Ordered translation of Sanskrit books into Persian.
Military Expeditions: Failed reconquest of Bengal. Campaigns to Jajnagar (Orissa), Nagarkot (Kangra), and Thatta (Sindh). Generally preferred peace; reign marked by military weakness.
Long-term Impact: Appeasement policies, hereditary iqtas/army posts, led to weakening of central authority, increased corruption, and contributed to Sultanate's decline.
Later Tughlaqs and Decline (1388-1414)
Firuz Shah Tughlaq's death (1388) initiated a period of weak successors (Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq Shah II, Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah Tughlaq) and intense civil wars among nobles.
The Sultanate's authority shrank drastically; "The rule of the Lord of the World extends from Delhi to Palam."
Invasion of Timur (Tamerlane) (1398)
During Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah's reign, Timur, the Turco-Mongol conqueror, invaded India. His forces easily defeated the Tughlaq army, sacked Delhi for days, causing widespread massacre and plunder. This dealt a death blow to the already tottering Sultanate, shattering its prestige and power. Timur appointed Khizr Khan (Multan governor) as his deputy, who founded the Sayyid Dynasty in 1414.
Prelims-ready Notes: Key Facts
| Dynasty | Key Rulers | Period | Major Contributions/Events | Key Terms |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mamluk/Slave | Qutb-ud-din Aibak, Iltutmish, Raziya, Balban | 1206-1290 CE | Establishment of Sultanate, Qutb Minar, Coins (Tanka, Jital), Iqta system, Turkan-i-Chahalgani, Mongol threat aversion, Balban's theory of Kingship (Zil-i-Ilahi), Sijda, Paibos, Diwan-i-Arz. | Lakh Bakhsh, Chaugan, Manshur, Turkan-i-Chahalgani, Iqta, Tanka, Jital, Sijda, Paibos, Zil-i-Ilahi, Niyabat-i-Khudai, Barids, Diwan-i-Arz. |
| Khalji | Jalaluddin Khalji, Alauddin Khalji | 1290-1320 CE | "Khalji Revolution", Expansion (North & Deccan), Mongol defense, Siri Fort, Market Control (Shahna-i-Mandi, Diwan-i-Riyasat), Land Revenue (50%, measurement, Diwan-i-Mustakhraj), Military (Dagh, Chehra), Alai Darwaza. | Khalji Revolution, Sikandar-i-Sani, Malik Kafur, Padmini legend, Dagh, Chehra, Shahna-i-Mandi, Sarai-Adl, Diwan-i-Riyasat, Ghari, Charai, Diwan-i-Mustakhraj, Biswa, Amir Khusrau. |
| Tughlaq | Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, Muhammad bin Tughlaq (MBT), Firuz Shah Tughlaq (FST) | 1320-1414 CE | Tughlaqabad, MBT's experiments (Capital transfer to Daulatabad, Token Currency, Khurasan/Qarachil expeditions), Diwan-i-Amir-Kohi, Taccavi loans, Ibn Battuta, FST's welfare (Diwan-i-Khairat, Diwan-i-Bandagan, Dar-ul-Shifa), Canals, Jizya on Brahmins, Timur's invasion (1398). | Ghazi Malik, Daulatabad, Token Currency, Diwan-i-Amir-Kohi, Taccavi (Sondhar), Rihla (Ibn Battuta), Diwan-i-Khairat, Diwan-i-Bandagan, Dar-ul-Shifa, Haqq-i-Sharb, Futuhat-i-Firuz Shahi, Jizya, Timur. |
Mains-ready Analytical Notes
- Legitimacy: Early Sultans faced challenges from other Ghorid nobles and Indian chiefs. Iltutmish’s Caliphate investiture was crucial.
- Internal Rebellions: Turkish nobility (Chahalgani) was a constant threat, broken by Balban. Regional governors also frequently rebelled.
- External Threats: Mongol invasions were persistent from Iltutmish to Alauddin Khalji, necessitating strong defenses.
- Vastness of Territory: Controlling a large, diverse empire with limited communication led to experiments (MBT's capital transfer) and eventual disintegration.
- Evolution of Kingship: From Aibak's dependence to Iltutmish’s consolidation, Balban’s divine-right monarchy (Zil-i-Ilahi), Alauddin’s absolutism ("Kingship knows no kinship," separation from Ulema), and FST's theocratic tendencies.
- Role of Nobility: Constant power struggle. Chahalgani's power, its suppression by Balban, Khalji "revolution" broadening the nobility, and FST's appeasement.
- Influence of Ulema: Varied. Alauddin disregarded, MBT engaged but later leaned orthodox, FST gave considerable influence.
- Alauddin's Reforms: Market Control (military necessity vs. public welfare), Land Revenue (50% demand, Zabita system, curbing intermediaries). Led to peasant hardship but increased state revenue.
- MBT's Experiments: Token Currency (conceptually sound but failed due to counterfeiting). Taxation in Doab (poor timing, famine). Later efforts (Diwan-i-Kohi, Taccavi) for agricultural development.
- FST's Policies: Abolition of cesses, extensive canals for agriculture. Hereditary iqtas and land assignments weakened central control and fiscal stability long-term.
- Continuity: Iqta system, cavalry importance, Persian court language, Indo-Islamic architecture.
- Changes: Nobility composition, theories of kingship, centralization intensity, economic regulations. "Khalji Revolution" was a significant shift.
- Debates: MBT ("Wise fool" vs. "Ill-starred idealist"). Alauddin's Market Reforms (military expediency vs. public welfare). FST's Legacy (benevolent vs. weakening policies).
Current Affairs & Recent Developments
While new discoveries are infrequent, conservation and research continue to enrich our understanding of this period.
- Heritage Conservation: The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) regularly undertakes conservation and restoration work at Sultanate-era monuments (e.g., Qutb Complex, Siri Fort, Tughlaqabad Fort, Firoz Shah Kotla). Efforts focus on structural integrity, visitor amenities, and preservation. (Check ASI website, PIB for recent specific projects).
- New Discoveries/Research: Ongoing archaeological excavations or re-interpretations using modern techniques (e.g., GIS mapping for settlement patterns, environmental history for famine impact) by historians and archaeologists continually refine understanding. (Refer to university research publications).
UPSC Previous Year Questions
Prelims MCQs:
Which one of the following Sultans of Delhi introduced measures for improving the quality of fruits?
- Muhammad bin Tughluq
- Firoz Tughluq
- Sikandar Lodi
- Sher Shah Suri
Answer: (b) Firoz Tughluq
Hint: Firoz Shah Tughlaq laid out 1200 fruit gardens around Delhi and took measures to improve fruit quality.
The token currency was introduced for the first time in India by:
- Balban
- Alauddin Khalji
- Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
- Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq
Answer: (d) Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq
Hint: Muhammad bin Tughlaq's experiment with bronze/copper token currency in 1329-30 is a well-known event.
Mains Questions:
Critically examine the policies of Balban for the consolidation of the Delhi Sultanate.
Direction: Discuss Balban's theory of kingship (Zil-i-Ilahi, Niyabat-i-Khudai), suppression of Chahalgani, establishment of law and order ("blood and iron"), military reforms (Diwan-i-Arz), espionage system, and Mongol policy. Analyze how these measures helped restore Sultan's prestige and consolidate the Sultanate, but also mention the harshness and potential long-term limitations (over-centralization, dependence on ruler's personality).
"Alauddin Khalji's measures were a product of military and administrative necessity." Elaborate.
Direction: Explain how Alauddin's need to maintain a large army to counter Mongol threats and for expansionist policies led to his market control (low prices for soldiers), revenue reforms (50% demand, curbing intermediaries for more funds), and administrative changes (curbing nobles' power to prevent revolts). Connect each reform to specific necessities. Acknowledge other possible motives (e.g., welfare for market control) but emphasize the primary drivers.
Trend Analysis (UPSC Past 10 Years)
Prelims Focus:
- Factual questions on specific rulers' key policies/contributions (Iltutmish, Balban, Alauddin, MBT, FST).
- Administrative/Revenue Terms (Iqta, Diwan-i-Mustakhraj, Taccavi, Ghari, Charai, Shahna-i-Mandi).
- Architectural Contributions (Qutb Minar, Alai Darwaza).
- Mix of direct, match-the-following, and assertion-reason types.
- Focus on unique or defining aspects. NCERTs and standard textbooks are key.
Mains Focus:
- Analytical and evaluative questions ("critically examine," "evaluate").
- Major Rulers and their Impact: Alauddin's reforms, MBT's controversial projects, Balban's consolidation, FST's policies and long-term impact.
- Broader Themes: Nature of Sultanate state, Sultan-nobility/Ulema relationship, causes of expansion/decline, Iqta system.
- Requires nuanced understanding, pros/cons, historical debates.
- Ability to link policies to context (e.g., Mongol threat) and analyze socio-economic impact.
Original MCQs for Prelims
Consider the following statements regarding the administrative reforms of the Delhi Sultanate:
- Iltutmish was the first to introduce a standardized silver Tanka and copper Jital.
- Alauddin Khalji's Diwan-i-Mustakhraj was primarily tasked with organizing the spy network.
- Firuz Shah Tughlaq established the Diwan-i-Amir-Kohi for agricultural development.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- 1 only
- 1 and 2 only
- 2 and 3 only
- 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (a) 1 only
Explanation: Statement 1 is correct. Statement 2 is incorrect (Diwan-i-Mustakhraj was for revenue arrears). Statement 3 is incorrect (Diwan-i-Amir-Kohi was by Muhammad bin Tughlaq).
Which of the following measures taken by Ghiyas-ud-din Balban aimed at enhancing the prestige and power of the Sultan?
- Introduction of Sijda and Paibos.
- Abolition of the Turkan-i-Chahalgani.
- Claiming descent from the mythical hero Afrasiyab.
- Creation of the Diwan-i-Riyasat for market control.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
- 1 and 2 only
- 1, 2 and 3 only
- 3 and 4 only
- 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: (b) 1, 2 and 3 only
Explanation: Statements 1, 2, and 3 are correct measures by Balban. Statement 4 is incorrect (Diwan-i-Riyasat was by Alauddin Khalji).
Original Descriptive Questions for Mains
"The Khalji Revolution was not merely a dynastic change but signified a deeper socio-political transformation in the Delhi Sultanate." Critically analyze this statement.
Key Points/Structure for Answering:
- Introduction: Briefly define Khalji Revolution and state argument.
- End of Turkish Monopoly: How Khaljis broke exclusive hold, opened doors for non-Turks.
- Assertion of Monarchical Power: Alauddin's absolutism, separation from Ulema.
- Expansionist Imperialism: Shift towards aggressive expansion into Deccan.
- Administrative and Economic Centralization: Alauddin's far-reaching reforms for state control.
- Counter-arguments/Limitations: Ulema still had social sway, not complete overhaul.
- Conclusion: Summarize significant shifts in ruling class, kingship, state policies, justifying "revolution."
Compare and contrast the approaches of Alauddin Khalji and Firuz Shah Tughlaq towards the nobility and the Ulema. What were the long-term consequences of their respective policies?
Key Points/Structure for Answering:
- Introduction: Briefly introduce both rulers and differing approaches.
- Alauddin Khalji: Nobility (suppression, control, broadened base), Ulema (separation of state policy from religious dictats). Consequences: Strong centralized state, short-term stability.
- Firuz Shah Tughlaq: Nobility (appeasement, hereditary iqtas/posts), Ulema (governed by Sharia, consulted, granted influence). Consequences: Popularity, but long-term weakening of central authority, decline in military efficiency, religious intolerance.
- Comparison: Direct contrast in absolutism vs. appeasement; relative secular statecraft vs. theocratic tendencies.
- Conclusion: Alauddin's harshness for short-term strength, FST's leniency/orthodoxy for long-term decline.