Introduction
The administration of the Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526 AD) represented a significant phase in Indian history, characterized by the establishment and evolution of a new politico-administrative system. It was largely a synthesis of Perso-Islamic administrative traditions and existing Indian practices, which developed and adapted over three centuries under various dynasties – Mamluks, Khaljis, Tughlaqs, Sayyids, and Lodis.
The system aimed to consolidate power, manage a vast and diverse territory, and extract resources, while also contending with internal rebellions and external threats. Though theoretically guided by Islamic tenets, political pragmatism often dictated state policies, especially in a predominantly non-Muslim Indian context. This period laid foundational administrative structures that influenced subsequent empires, notably the Mughals.
(Source: Synthesized from NCERT Class 7 "Our Pasts - II", Satish Chandra's "History of Medieval India", and IGNOU materials.)
Nature of the State
Theocratic vs. Military State Debate
Theoretically: An Islamic state, with Sharia (Islamic law) intended as supreme. Ulema (religious scholars) advised the Sultan.
Practically: Sultans prioritized Zawabit (state laws) for political expediency. Alauddin Khalji famously stated he did what was best for the state, regardless of Sharia. Primarily a military state, relying on a strong armed force and foreign nobility.
(Source: Satish Chandra)
Concept of Sultan & Caliphate
Sultan: Supreme head – chief executive, legislator, judicial authority, commander-in-chief.
Caliphate: Sultans sought investiture (manshur) from the Abbasid Caliph (initially Baghdad, then Egypt) for legitimacy (e.g., Iltutmish, Muhammad bin Tughlaq, Firuz Shah Tughlaq). Mubarak Shah Khalji even declared himself Caliph.
Theories of Kingship Across Dynasties
Mamluks (Balban)
Introduced Persian model of divine right: Zil-i-Ilahi (Shadow of God), Niyabat-i-Khudai (Viceregency of God). Emphasized grandeur, discipline, and racial exclusivity for high office.
Khaljis (Alauddin)
Championed absolutism and imperial authority. Decisively separated state from Ulema dominance: "Kingship knows no kinship." Believed in strong, centralized state.
Tughlaqs (Muhammad bin, Firuz Shah)
M.B.T. experimented with novel, sometimes radical, ideas. Firuz re-emphasized Ulema's role, sought their approval, governing more in line with Sharia for legitimacy.
Lodis (Sikandar)
Contended with Afghan tribal notions of "first among equals." Sikandar Lodi asserted royal authority and centralized power, demanding greater obedience from nobility.
Central Administration
The central administration was organized around a number of key officials and departments (Diwans) to manage the affairs of the Sultanate efficiently.
| Department | Headed By / Official(s) | Primary Functions | Notes / Associated Sultan(s) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Diwan-i-Wizarat | Wazir (Prime Minister) | Finance, revenue, general administration. Assisted by Mushrif-i-Mumalik (Accountant General) & Mustaufi-i-Mumalik (Auditor General). | Most important department. |
| Diwan-i-Arz | Ariz-i-Mumalik (Minister of War) | Recruitment, organization, equipment, inspection of army, payment of salaries. | Established by Balban, strengthened by Alauddin Khalji. |
| Diwan-i-Insha | Dabir-i-Khas / Dabir-i-Mumalik | Royal correspondence, drafting of farmans (royal orders). | Head also known as Amir Munshi. |
| Diwan-i-Risalat | (Varied) | Often foreign affairs, diplomatic correspondence. Sometimes religious matters/grants. | Sometimes combined with Sadr-us-Sudur. |
| Sadr-us-Sudur | Sadr-us-Sudur | Religious & ecclesiastical affairs, Sharia enforcement, grants (madad-i-maash). | Often held concurrently with Qazi-ul-Quzat. |
| Qazi-ul-Quzat | Qazi-ul-Quzat (Chief Judge) | Head of judicial department, administered justice based on Sharia. | Highest judicial authority after Sultan. |
| Barid-i-Mumalik | Barid-i-Mumalik | Head of state intelligence and information agency (postal system). | Crucial for monitoring nobles and events. |
| Wakil-i-Dar | Wakil-i-Dar | Managed royal household, court ceremonies, Sultan's personal staff. | Officer of high importance and trust. |
| Amir-i-Hajib | Amir-i-Hajib (Barbek) | Master of ceremonies, regulated access to Sultan, ensured court decorum. | Controlled who met the Sultan. |
| Specialized Departments & Reforms | |||
| Diwan-i-Mustakhraj | (Alauddin Khalji) | To inquire into and realize revenue arrears from collectors. | To curb corruption and ensure full revenue collection. |
| Diwan-i-Riyasat | Rais (under Alauddin Khalji) | To control markets and prices. Shahna-i-Mandi supervised grain market. | Part of Alauddin's market control policy. |
| Diwan-i-Amir-Kohi | (Muhammad bin Tughlaq) | Department of agriculture, to promote cultivation and provide agricultural loans (sondhar). | Aimed at improving and extending cultivation. |
| Diwan-i-Khairat | (Firuz Shah Tughlaq) | Department of charity (e.g., aid for marriage of poor girls). | Reflects Firuz Shah's welfare measures. |
| Diwan-i-Bandagan | (Firuz Shah Tughlaq) | Department of slaves. | Managed the large number of slaves during his reign. |
| Diwan-i-Isthqaq | (Firuz Shah Tughlaq) | Department for pensions to deserving individuals. | Part of Firuz Shah's welfare state concept. |
Provincial & Local Administration
The Iqta System: A Cornerstone
Definition & Responsibilities
- Definition: Revenue from a land/territory (iqta) granted to state officials (iqtadars, muqtis, or walis) in lieu of cash salaries. Not land ownership.
- Responsibilities: Maintain law & order, collect revenue, meet expenses & pay soldiers, remit surplus (Fawazil) to central treasury, furnish troops to Sultan.
Nature: Iqtas were transferable (in principle) and not hereditary, ensuring central control, until Firuz Shah Tughlaq's reign. Supervised by Diwan-i-Wizarat via audits and barids.
(Source: Satish Chandra)
Evolution of the Iqta System
Formalization (Iltutmish)
System informally existed but was formalized by Iltutmish to manage growing territories and compensate nobility.
Centralization (Alauddin Khalji)
Curtailed iqtadar powers, increased central scrutiny, collected revenue directly in some areas to strengthen central treasury.
Weakening Central Control (Firuz Shah Tughlaq)
Made iqtas largely hereditary and allowed sub-assignment, significantly weakening central control and contributing to Sultanate's decline.
Administrative Hierarchy
Hierarchical Units:
- Provinces (Iqlim/Vilayat/Suba): Headed by Muqtis or Walis (Governors/powerful iqtadars).
- Shiqs (Districts): Introduced later (Balban/Alauddin, formalized Tughlaqs). Headed by Shiqdars (law & order, revenue assistance).
- Parganas (Sub-districts): Collection of villages. Headed by Amil (revenue collector) and Mushrif (accountant). Qanungo (revenue records).
Village Level:
Basic unit, traditional structure largely untouched.
- Officials: Muqaddam (headman), Patwari (accountant), Chaukidar (watchman). Khuts & Chaudhuris (intermediaries).
- Village Panchayat: Continued to function, managing local affairs and dispensing justice.
Military Organization
Army Composition & Types
- Cavalry (Sawar): Backbone, crucial wing. Turkish and Afghan horsemen.
- Infantry (Paiks): Foot soldiers, often local Hindu recruits.
- War Elephants: Important for charging and breaking lines.
- Hashm-i-qalb / Afwaj-i-qalb: Central army, directly maintained and paid by Sultan. Alauddin Khalji maintained a large standing army paid in cash.
- Contingents: Supplied by iqtadars as per obligations.
Reforms & Maintenance
- Diwan-i-Arz: Responsible for recruitment, training, muster rolls, discipline, and salary disbursement.
- Dagh (branding of horses): Systematically introduced by Alauddin Khalji to prevent corruption and ensure cavalry quality. Revived by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
- Chehra/Huliya (descriptive roll of soldiers): Also by Alauddin Khalji, prevented proxies during musters.
Fortifications & Other Aspects
- Forts (Qila): Immense strategic importance for defense and control.
- Kotwals: Officials in charge of administration and security of forts within towns.
- Limited Navy: No significant ocean-going navy; maintained river flotillas.
- Artillery: Early siege engines (mangonels, catapults - manjaniq, arrada) used. Gunpowder cannons appeared towards end of Sultanate.
Judicial System
Sources of Law
- Sharia (Islamic Law): Primary source. Derived from Quran, Hadith, Ijma (consensus), Qiyas (analogical deduction).
- Zawabit: State laws/decrees by Sultan, often for administrative/revenue matters, sometimes overriding Sharia for state reasons.
- Customary Laws: Applied to non-Muslims (Hindus) in personal matters (marriage, inheritance). Urf (custom) also played a role.
Hierarchy of Courts & Officials
- Sultan: Highest court of appeal (Diwan-i-Mazalim for grievances).
- Qazi-ul-Quzat: Chief Judge, supervised lower qazis.
- Qazis: Judges in provinces/districts/towns, administered justice based on Sharia (for Muslims).
- Amir-i-Dad: Secular judicial officer, enforced judgments, apprehended criminals, dealt with government officials. Assisted by Muhtasib (censor of public morals, weights/measures).
Civil & Criminal Law
Distinction existed. Sharia governed Muslims. Non-Muslims (Zimmis) largely governed by their own personal laws in civil matters. Criminal cases often subject to same laws. Punishments were severe (mutilation, flogging, death penalty).
Fiscal Policy & Taxation
The fiscal system was crucial for maintaining the army, administration, and the Sultan's court, relying on a mix of religious and secular taxes.
| Tax Name | Description | Rate / Target / Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Kharaj | Land tax levied on non-Muslims. | Varied; historically 1/5th, but Alauddin Khalji raised it to 1/2 (50%) of the produce in fertile areas. |
| Ushr | Land tax from lands owned by Muslims. | Generally 1/10th if naturally irrigated, 1/20th if artificially irrigated. |
| Jizya | Poll tax levied on adult, able-bodied male non-Muslims (Zimmis) in lieu of military service and for state protection. | Amount varied by economic status. Exemptions: women, children, disabled, indigent, monks (initially Brahmins). Firuz Shah Tughlaq notably imposed Jizya on Brahmins. |
| Zakat | Religious tax obligatory for Muslims. | 2.5% of specified property (savings, produce, livestock) above a threshold (nisab). Used for Muslim welfare. |
| Khams / Ghanima | State's share of spoils of war. Also included revenue from mines and treasure troves. | Traditionally 1/5th to state, 4/5th to soldiers. Alauddin Khalji & Muhammad Tughlaq reversed this, taking 4/5th for the state. |
| Other Significant Taxes & Methods | ||
| Ghari | House tax. | Systematically levied by Alauddin Khalji. |
| Charai | Pasture tax on grazing animals. | Systematically levied by Alauddin Khalji. |
| Haqq-i-Sharb (Shurb) | Irrigation tax. | Levied by Firuz Shah Tughlaq on lands benefiting from state canals (usually 1/10th of produce). |
| Customs Duties | On import and export of goods. | Rates differed for Muslims (Ushur) and non-Muslims. |
| Assessment Methods | Varied approaches to determine land revenue. |
|
Impact on Peasantry
The tax burden was often heavy, especially under Alauddin Khalji (50% Kharaj plus Ghari & Charai). Taxation enhancement by Muhammad bin Tughlaq during famine led to widespread distress and rebellions. While Firuz Shah Tughlaq attempted relief (canals, abolishing some taxes), the system remained largely extractive.
Prelims-ready Notes
Concise factual points for quick revision. Click on each section to expand.
- Nature of State: Theoretically Islamic (Sharia), practically military with Sultan's laws (Zawabit) often supreme (e.g., Alauddin Khalji).
- Balban: Persian model, Zil-i-Ilahi (Shadow of God), Niyabat-i-Khudai (Viceregency of God).
- Alauddin Khalji: Absolutism, separation from Ulema.
- Muhammad Tughlaq: Experimental sovereignty.
- Firuz Tughlaq: Re-emphasized Ulema.
- Lodis: Balance between Afghan tribalism and royal authority.
- Caliphate: Sought investiture (manshur) for legitimacy (Iltutmish, M. Tughlaq, F. Tughlaq). Mubarak Khalji declared himself Caliph.
- Sultan: Supreme executive, legislative, judicial, military head.
- Diwan-i-Wizarat (Wazir): Finance, revenue. (Mushrif-i-Mumalik: Accountant Gen; Mustaufi-i-Mumalik: Auditor Gen).
- Diwan-i-Arz (Ariz-i-Mumalik): Military affairs (Balban, Alauddin).
- Diwan-i-Insha (Dabir-i-Khas): Royal correspondence.
- Diwan-i-Risalat: Foreign affairs/religious matters.
- Sadr-us-Sudur: Religious affairs, grants (madad-i-maash).
- Qazi-ul-Quzat: Chief Judge.
- Barid-i-Mumalik: State intelligence (Barids = spies).
- Wakil-i-Dar: Royal household.
- Amir-i-Hajib (Barbek): Master of court ceremonies.
- Diwan-i-Mustakhraj (Alauddin): Revenue arrears.
- Diwan-i-Riyasat (Alauddin): Market control (Rais, Shahna-i-Mandi).
- Diwan-i-Amir-Kohi (M. Tughlaq): Agriculture.
- Diwan-i-Khairat (F. Tughlaq): Charity.
- Diwan-i-Bandagan (F. Tughlaq): Slaves.
- Diwan-i-Isthqaq (F. Tughlaq): Pensions.
- Iqta System: Revenue grant to officials (Iqtadars/Muqtis/Walis) for salary & troop maintenance. Transferable (not hereditary until Firuz). Formalized by Iltutmish.
- Provincial/Local: Provinces (Iqlim/Vilayat) -> Shiqs (Shiqdar) -> Parganas (Amil) -> Villages (Muqaddam, Patwari).
- Military: Cavalry (sawar) backbone. Infantry (paiks), war elephants. Hashm-i-qalb (central army). Dagh (horse branding) & Chehra (soldier's roll) by Alauddin Khalji. Kotwal: In-charge of town forts.
- Judicial: Sources: Sharia, Zawabit, Customary laws. Hierarchy: Sultan (Diwan-i-Mazalim) -> Qazi-ul-Quzat -> Qazis. Amir-i-Dad (secular officer), Muhtasib (public morals).
- Kharaj (land tax, non-Muslims, up to 50% under Alauddin).
- Ushr (land tax, Muslims, 1/10th or 1/20th).
- Jizya (poll tax, non-Muslims; Firuz Tughlaq on Brahmins).
- Zakat (religious tax, Muslims, 2.5%).
- Khams (1/5th war booty, Alauddin & M. Tughlaq took 4/5th).
- Ghari (house tax), Charai (pasture tax) - Alauddin.
- Haqq-i-Sharb (irrigation tax) - Firuz Tughlaq.
- Land Revenue Methods: Batai/Ghalla-Bakshi (sharing), Kankut (estimation), Masahat (measurement - Alauddin).
Mains-ready Analytical Notes
Synthesis of Traditions
The Delhi Sultanate's administration was a unique blend of Perso-Islamic systems (Turks) and existing Indian practices. Nomenclature was Persian (Wazir, Ariz), but lower levels (village administration - Muqaddam, Patwari) and revenue assessment (crop-sharing) retained strong Indian continuities. This synthesis was crucial for governing a vast, non-Muslim population.
(Source: Satish Chandra)
Theocratic vs. Military State Debate
- For Theocratic: Sultans were Muslims, Sharia supreme (theoretically), Ulema influence, Jizya levied, Caliphate recognition sought.
- For Military/Secular (in practice): Survival dependent on military strength; Zawabit often overrode Sharia (Alauddin Khalji); officials chosen for prowess/loyalty; non-Muslims integral to economy/admin.
Conclusion: Primarily a military state with an Islamic veneer. Practical governance driven by political/economic needs. (NCERT Class XII)
Evolution of Kingship & Central Authority
- Mamluks (Balban): Consolidation to divine right.
- Khaljis (Alauddin): Zenith of monarchical absolutism, curbing nobles, separating state from Ulema.
- Tughlaqs (Muhammad bin, Firuz): M.B.T.'s experiments vs. Firuz's concessions to nobility/Ulema (hereditary iqtas), weakening center.
- Lodis: Struggle to reassert central power against Afghan tribal notions.
Iqta System: Tool & Limitation
- Pros: Consolidated administration, ensured revenue & troops, functioned in cash-scarce economy.
- Cons/Challenges: Potential for iqtadar autonomy/rebellion. Transferability key to control; hereditary iqtas (Firuz) fragmented power, contributing to decline.
Impact on Peasantry & Continuity/Change
- Impact on Peasantry: Heavy tax burden (Kharaj, Ghari, Charai, often 50%). Alauddin's rates were oppressive. M.B.T.'s Doab taxation during famine devastated. Firuz's welfare measures were partial relief.
- Continuity: Village as basic unit, Muqaddam, Patwari, Panchayats, customary laws for non-Muslims.
- Change: Perso-Islamic admin (Diwans, Iqta), new legal framework (Sharia/Zawabit), new military (Dagh/Chehra), new taxes (Jizya).
Foundations for Mughal Administration: Many Sultanate practices were adopted and refined by Mughals (e.g., land revenue, provincial admin, military organization).
UPSC Previous Year Questions
Prelims MCQ 1 (UPSC Prelims 2019)
Q. With reference to the economic history of medieval India, the term 'Araghatta' refers to:
- (a) bonded labour
- (b) land grants made to military officers
- (c) waterwheel used in the irrigation of land
- (d) wasteland converted to cultivated land
Explanation: Araghatta or Persian wheel was a device used for lifting water from a water source for irrigation, prevalent in medieval India, including the Sultanate period.
Prelims MCQ 2 (UPSC Prelims 2016)
Q. Who among the following Sultans established a separate department (Diwan-i-Amir Kohi) to improve agriculture?
- (a) Balban
- (b) Alauddin Khalji
- (c) Muhammad bin Tughlaq
- (d) Firuz Shah Tughlaq
Explanation: Muhammad bin Tughlaq established the Diwan-i-Amir Kohi to bring barren land under cultivation and provide agricultural loans (sondhar).
Prelims MCQ 3 (UPSC Prelims 2014)
Q. The system of Dagh (branding of horses) and Chehra (descriptive roll of soldiers) was introduced by:
- (a) Iltutmish
- (b) Balban
- (c) Alauddin Khalji
- (d) Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
Explanation: Alauddin Khalji introduced these military reforms to maintain a strong and efficient army and prevent corruption. The system was revived by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq after a period of neglect.
Mains Question 1 (UPSC Mains 2014)
Q. "The Iqta system was an important institution of the Delhi Sultanate." Elaborate. (Approx. 150 words)
Direction/Value Points:
- Define Iqta: revenue assignment, not land grant.
- Purpose: Salary for officials, troop maintenance, revenue collection, law and order.
- Evolution: Iltutmish (formalized) -> Alauddin (curtailed power) -> Firuz Shah (hereditary, weakened center).
- Significance: Helped consolidate empire, manage vast territory, formed backbone of nobility's power and obligations.
- Limitations: Potential for decentralization if not strictly controlled.
Mains Question 2 (UPSC Mains 2018)
Q. Critically examine the views of Ziauddin Barani on the ideal Sultan and the nature of the state in the Delhi Sultanate. (Approx. 250 words)
Direction/Value Points:
- Barani's context: Wrote Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi and Fatawa-i-Jahandari.
- Ideal Sultan (as per Barani): Should be just, God-fearing, uphold Sharia, protect faith, consult wise men. But also emphasized necessity of state laws (Zawabit) for political stability, even if not strictly Sharia-compliant.
- Views on Alauddin Khalji: Admired his strong statecraft and market reforms for state benefit, even though Alauddin disregarded Ulema on policy.
- Views on Muhammad bin Tughlaq: Critical of his radical policies and disregard for traditional counsel.
- Nature of State: Barani reflected the tension between Islamic ideals and political realities. Advocated strong monarchy, noble birth for officials, practical statecraft alongside religious considerations.
- Critical examination: Barani's views shaped by experiences, biases (e.g., towards nobility). Fatawa-i-Jahandari outlines ideal, Tarikh describes realities.
Trend Analysis (Last 10 Years)
Prelims Trends
- Shift from direct to moderately analytical questions.
- Focus on key Sultans and their innovations (Alauddin Khalji, M. Tughlaq, Firuz Tughlaq).
- Important administrative and economic terms (Iqta, Kharaj, Jizya, Diwan).
- Consistent, though not high-frequency, area.
Mains Trends
- Analytical and critical evaluation required (Iqta system, Barani's views).
- Interlinkages: connecting administration with economy, politics, social impact.
- Focus on major institutions and policies (Iqta, kingship theories, state nature, reforms).
- Emphasis on evolution and change over time.
- Implied comparative elements with later periods (Mughals).
UPSC expects deeper understanding beyond rote memorization of dynamics, rationale, and consequences.
Conclusion & Significance
The administration of the Delhi Sultanate was a complex and evolving system that played a crucial role in shaping the medieval Indian political landscape. It successfully established a framework for governance over a large and diverse territory, integrating Perso-Islamic administrative principles with indigenous Indian practices. Key institutions like the Iqta system, a structured central and provincial bureaucracy, and organized military and fiscal policies were its hallmarks.
Significance:
- Laid foundations for many administrative practices adopted and refined by the Mughal Empire.
- Facilitated integration of different cultural elements into the Indian polity.
- Debates on state nature (theocratic vs. military) and kingship theories reflect state formation and legitimation in a multicultural context.
- Fiscal policies and land revenue systems had profound impact on agrarian economy and peasantry.
- Administrative legacy endured, demonstrating remarkable resilience and adaptability.
Understanding this administrative system is vital for comprehending the political, economic, and social history of medieval India and its transition to later imperial structures.