Economy of the Delhi Sultanate

Unveiling the Economic Tapestry of Medieval India (1206-1526 CE)

Explore the Economic Landscape

Introduction & Summary

The Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526 CE) witnessed significant economic transformations in the Indian subcontinent. This period was characterized by the consolidation of a new ruling class, the expansion of agrarian systems, remarkable urban growth, flourishing internal and external trade, and advancements in technology and crafts. While the agrarian sector remained the backbone of the economy, providing sustenance and surplus, the era also saw a vibrant commercial life connecting India with the wider world. The economic policies of various Sultans, the introduction of new technologies, and the interplay of diverse social groups shaped the economic landscape, leaving a lasting impact on India's medieval and subsequent economic history. Understanding this period is crucial for appreciating the continuities and changes in India's economic trajectory.

Core Economic Dimensions

3.4.1: Agrarian Economy

The agrarian economy was the primary source of wealth and sustenance during the Delhi Sultanate. The state's revenue largely depended on agricultural surplus.

3.4.1.1: Land Ownership and Control

There is considerable debate regarding the precise nature of land ownership:

  • Sultan as Ultimate Owner: Generally, the Sultan was considered the ultimate owner of all land (similar to the concept of imperium). (Satish Chandra)
  • Peasant Occupancy Rights: Peasants (Raiyyat or Balaiyars) had hereditary occupancy rights as long as they cultivated and paid revenue. They could not be evicted arbitrarily. (Irfan Habib)
  • Intermediaries: A class of rural intermediaries existed (Khuts, Muqaddams, Chaudhuris – later Zamindars). Alauddin Khalji attempted to curtail their powers. (Satish Chandra)
  • Iqtadars: Holders of iqtas (revenue assignments). They collected revenue and maintained troops but did not own the land. Iqtas were initially transferable, not hereditary. (IGNOU)

3.4.1.2: Crop Patterns

Diversity in crops supported sustenance and trade:

  • Major Food Crops: Wheat, barley, rice, millets (jowar, bajra), pulses, peas.
  • Cash Crops (Crops of Excellence): Grown for sale and export, indicating significant commercialization.
    • Sugarcane (Bengal, Bihar, Multan)
    • Cotton (Gujarat, Khandesh, Doab)
    • Indigo (nil) (Doab, Bengal - highly prized for dyeing)
    • Opium (Malwa, Bihar)
    • Oilseeds, fruits (mangoes, grapes, melons), vegetables.
    • Specialized horticulture promoted by rulers like Muhammad Tughlaq and Firuz Tughlaq. (Satish Chandra)
  • New Crops: Limited, but sericulture (mulberry silk) is believed to have spread significantly.

3.4.1.3: Irrigation

State and individual efforts improved agricultural productivity:

  • State Efforts:
    • Canals: Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq credited with early efforts. Firuz Shah Tughlaq developed an extensive network (Rajabwah, Ulughkhani canals from Yamuna, others from Sutlej, Ghaggar). He levied an irrigation tax (haqq-i-sharb) of 1/10th of the produce. (Satish Chandra; IGNOU)
  • Individual and Community Efforts:
    • Wells: Primary source. The Rahat or Persian wheel (geared water-lifting device) improved efficiency. (Irfan Habib)
    • Tanks (Hauz): Hauz-i-Shamsi (Iltutmish), Hauz-i-Alai/Khas (Alauddin Khalji).
    • Dams and embankments constructed locally.

3.4.1.4: Condition of Peasantry

  • High Land Revenue Demand: Kharaj often 1/3 to 1/2 of produce. Alauddin Khalji fixed it at 50% in Doab. (Satish Chandra)
  • Additional Cesses (Abwabs): Ghari (house tax), Charai (pasture tax) by Alauddin Khalji.
  • Famines: Severe famine in Delhi-Doab during Muhammad bin Tughlaq's reign (c. 1335-42).
  • Peasant Revolts: Due to distress and oppression.
  • Taccavi Loans: Sondhar loans provided by state in crisis (e.g., Muhammad Tughlaq's Diwan-i-Amir-Kohi department). (Satish Chandra)

3.4.1.5: Rural Credit and Indebtedness

Primary sources of credit were Sahs (Sahukars) and Mahajans (often Banias). Peasants often fell into debt due to high revenue, crop failures, social obligations. (Irfan Habib)

3.4.2: Urbanization and Growth of Towns

The Sultanate period marked a significant phase of urban growth, often termed the "urban revolution" by some historians.

3.4.2.1: Factors for Urban Growth

  • Centralized State & Administrative Centers.
  • Concentration of Nobility and Retainers.
  • Growth of Crafts and Commerce.
  • Imperial Karkhanas (Workshops).
  • Presence of Large Standing Armies.
  • Improved Communication (roads, sarais).

3.4.2.2: Major Urban Centers

  • Delhi: Capital, major metropolis (Siri, Jahanpanah, Firuzabad).
  • Lahore & Multan (Northwest).
  • Anhilwara (Patan), Cambay (Khambhat), Broach (Gujarat ports).
  • Daulatabad (Devagiri), Lakhnauti (Gaur), Jaunpur.
  • Agra: Founded by Sikandar Lodi in 1504 CE.

3.4.2.3: Urban Administration

  • Kotwal: Chief city administrator, law & order, markets, weights & measures.
  • Muhtasib: Enforced public morals, fair trade, checked weights & measures.

3.4.2.4: Urban Demography

Multi-ethnic and multi-religious populations:

  • Nobles, soldiers, artisans, merchants, scholars, slaves, laborers.

3.4.3: Trade and Commerce

Significant expansion of both internal and external trade, with India having a favorable balance of trade.

3.4.3.1: Internal Trade

  • Well-developed networks for bulk (food grains, textiles) and luxury goods.
  • Banjaras: Itinerant traders for bulk transport with caravans (tandas). (Irfan Habib)
  • Sarais (Rest Houses): Facilitated trade and security.
  • Regulated Markets: Alauddin Khalji's market control measures (Diwan-i-Riyasat, Shahna-i-Mandi) in Delhi.

3.4.3.2: External Trade: Overland

  • Routes: Khyber Pass to Central Asia, Persia, Afghanistan, China.
  • Imports: Horses (crucial for military), precious metals, silk, velvet, dried fruits.
  • Exports: Textiles (cotton, silk), food grains, indigo, opium, slaves.
  • Prominent Traders: Multanis (Hindu, overland, financiers), Khurasanis (Foreign Muslim).

3.4.3.2: External Trade: Maritime

  • Ports: Gujarat (Cambay, Broach), Malabar Coast (Calicut), Bengal (Sonargaon, Satgaon).
  • Trade Regions: Persian Gulf, Red Sea, East Africa, Southeast Asia, China.
  • Exports: Similar to overland – textiles, indigo, food, spices.
  • Imports: Horses (from Arabia), precious metals, luxury goods.

3.4.3.3: Merchant Communities and Financiers

  • Hindu Merchants: Multanis, Marwaris, Gujarati Banias.
  • Muslim Merchants: Bohras, Khurasanis, Arabs, Persians.
  • Financiers: Sahs (Sahukars), Modis (grain merchants), Shroffs (Sarrafs - bankers, money-changers, Hundis).
  • Hundi System: Bills of exchange for long-distance trade, reducing cash risk. (Irfan Habib)

3.4.3.4: Coinage

  • Standardization by Iltutmish: Silver Tanka (175 grains), Copper Jital.
  • Billon Coins: Mixed copper and silver for smaller transactions.
  • Muhammad Tughlaq's Token Currency (c. 1329-30): Bronze/copper coins valued as silver Tankas. Failed due to widespread counterfeiting and public distrust. (Satish Chandra; Barani)
  • Quality reflected economic stability. Firuz Tughlaq also issued gold coins.

3.4.4: Technology and Crafts

The Sultanate period saw the introduction, diffusion, and refinement of various technologies and crafts.

3.4.4.1: Karkhanas (Imperial Workshops)

  • Maintained by Sultans (Alauddin Khalji, Firuz Tughlaq).
  • Produced goods for royal household, court, army, gifts.
  • Employed large number of skilled artisans (many slaves).
  • Types: Ratibi (regular supplies), Ghair-Ratibi (specific orders). (Afif; Satish Chandra)

3.4.4.2: Textile Industry

  • Leading craft: High-quality cotton, silk, wool.
  • Fine Muslins (Bengal), silk (Patan patola, Cambay).
  • Spinning Wheel (Charkha): Introduced/widespread adoption (13th-14th century) significantly increased yarn production efficiency. (Irfan Habib)

3.4.4.3: Metalwork

  • Iron (tools, weapons), Copper & Brass (utensils), Silver & Gold (ornaments, coinage).
  • Bidriware (zinc-copper alloy, inlaid with silver) roots.

3.4.4.4: Paper Making

  • Introduced from China via Persia/Central Asia (c. 13th century).
  • Replaced palm leaf/birch bark. Facilitated record-keeping. Delhi a center. (Irfan Habib)

3.4.4.5: Building Technology

  • True Arch and Dome: Perfected, allowing larger structures. (Percy Brown)
  • Lime-Mortar: Superior cementing material.

3.4.4.6: Water-lifting Devices

  • Dhekli (lever principle), Chadas (leather bucket).
  • Sakia/Araghatta/Rahat (Persian Wheel): Geared version allowed continuous lifting from deeper wells. (Irfan Habib)

3.4.4.7: Military Technology

  • Improved Siege Engines (manjaniq, arrada), Naphtha, Grenades.
  • Gunpowder Technology: Arrived late (late 14th/15th century), limited use in artillery before Babur. (Iqtidar Alam Khan)

3.4.4.8: Other Crafts

  • Leatherwork, Pottery, Stone-cutting, Ivory Carving, Pearl Fishery, Boat building, Carpet weaving.

3.4.5: Current Affairs Linkage

Historical Water Management & Modern Relevance:

The Tughlaq-era canals and tanks are examples of sophisticated pre-modern water management. In the context of modern water scarcity, these systems offer lessons. Contemporary schemes like Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) and Atal Bhujal Yojana echo the historical importance of irrigation. A NITI Aayog report (Composite Water Management Index) highlights severe water stress, making historical studies pertinent. (PIB; Ministry of Jal Shakti)

Recognition of Traditional Crafts:

Many traditional Indian crafts flourished during the Sultanate. GI Tags (Geographical Indications of Goods Act, 1999) protect and promote such crafts. For example, Patan Patola, known in Sultanate times, now has a GI tag. (DPIIT website)

Archaeological Findings:

Ongoing excavations by ASI or state departments occasionally unearth artifacts, settlements, or karkhanas from the Sultanate period, shedding new light on urban centers, trade, or living conditions. Conservation work at sites like Siri Fort often reveals new facets. (ASI website; News reports)

Conclusion & Significance

The economy of the Delhi Sultanate was dynamic, marked by agricultural expansion, significant urban growth, and extensive trade networks. The state played a crucial role through its revenue policies, infrastructure development (roads, canals, sarais), and patronage of crafts (karkhanas). Technological innovations like the spinning wheel and the Persian wheel had a profound impact on production. While the peasantry often faced hardships, the period also saw the rise of prosperous merchant communities and a monetized economy with sophisticated credit instruments like hundis.

Significance:

  • Laid the foundation for the more centralized and elaborate economic structures of the Mughal Empire.
  • Integrated India more deeply into inter-regional and international trade networks.
  • Fostered a rich tradition of crafts and technological skills.
  • Contributed to a composite culture through urban interactions.

Understanding this economic history provides insights into long-term trends in Indian agriculture, urbanization, and commerce, and the complex interplay between state, society, and economy in pre-colonial India.

UPSC Examination Insights

3. Prelims-ready Notes
Aspect Key Features/Terms
Land Control Sultan (ultimate), Raiyyat (occupancy), Khuts, Muqaddams, Chaudhuris, Iqtadars
Key Crops Wheat, Rice, Cotton, Sugarcane, Indigo, Opium
Irrigation Tech Canals (Firuz Tughlaq), Wells (Rahat/Persian Wheel), Tanks; Haqq-i-sharb
Peasant Issues High Kharaj, Abwabs, Famines, Revolts; Taccavi loans, Diwan-i-Amir-Kohi
Urban Growth Drivers State centralization, nobility, trade, Karkhanas, army
Key Cities Delhi, Lahore, Multan, Cambay, Daulatabad, Lakhnauti, Jaunpur, Agra
Urban Administration Kotwal, Muhtasib
Internal Trade Banjaras, Sarais, regulated markets (Alauddin Khalji)
External Trade Overland (horses, silk in; textiles out), Maritime (Gujarat, Bengal ports)
Merchants & Finance Multanis, Khurasanis, Bohras, Banias, Sahs, Shroffs; Hundi system
Currency Tanka (silver), Jital (copper), Billon coins, M. Tughlaq's token currency (failed)
Workshops Karkhanas (Ratibi, Ghair-Ratibi)
Textile Tech Charkha (spinning wheel)
New Tech Intro. Paper making, True Arch & Dome, Gunpowder (late)
4. Mains-ready Analytical Notes

Major Debates/Discussions:

  • Land Ownership: Debate on Sultan's ultimate ownership vs. peasant rights. Role and fluctuation of intermediaries' power (Khuts, Muqaddams, Chaudhuris).
  • Persian Wheel (Rahat/Araghatta): Timing and impact of its widespread adoption in North India (Irfan Habib's view of 13th-14th century significance) on agricultural expansion.
  • Urban Revolution Thesis: Mohammad Habib argued for an "urban revolution" due to Sultanate's establishment and cash economy, debated by critics pointing to pre-Sultanate urban centers.

Historical/Long-term Trends, Continuity & Changes:

  • Continuity: Agrarian base, monsoon dependence, traditional irrigation, village communities, moneylenders, traditional crafts.
  • Changes: Increased State Intervention (systematic revenue assessment, direct collection); Wider Monetization (standardized currency, cash revenue); Significant Urban Expansion; Commercialization of Agriculture (cash crops); Technological Infusion (Persian wheel, spinning wheel, paper, arch-dome); New Trade Networks; New Labor Organization (Karkhanas).

Contemporary Relevance/Significance/Impact:

  • Water Management Legacy: Tughlaq-era canal systems underscore long history of state-led irrigation. Relevant to modern debates on sustainable water infrastructure (Jal Jeevan Mission, Atal Bhujal Yojana). Example: Western Yamuna Canal.
  • Traditional Crafts and Livelihoods: Many craft traditions continue. GI Tags (e.g., Patan Patola) protect heritage. USTTAD scheme for craft preservation.
  • Urban Planning Insights: Historical city planning offers perspective for contemporary urbanization.
  • Trade Facilitation: Historical importance of sarais echoes modern needs for robust logistics (National Logistics Policy).

Real-world/Data-backed Recent Examples: NITI Aayog's CWMI 2.0 (2019) on water scarcity; Over 500 GI-tagged products in India (early 2024), many with medieval roots.

6. UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Prelims MCQs:

  1. Q. (UPSC CSE 2002) The Karkhanas of the Delhi Sultans were:
    • (a) State treasuries
    • (b) Royal factories or workshops (Answer)
    • (c) Places where royal orders were issued
    • (d) Places where religious discourses were held
  2. Q. (UPSC CSE 2004) Who among the following Sultans of Delhi introduced the token currency?
    • (a) Alauddin Khalji
    • (b) Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
    • (c) Muhammad bin Tughlaq (Answer)
    • (d) Firuz Shah Tughlaq
  3. Q. (UPSC CSE 1998) What was ‘Dar-ul-Shafa’ established by Firoz Tughlaq?
    • (a) An alms house
    • (b) A free hospital (Answer)
    • (c) A library
    • (d) A rest house for pilgrims

Mains Questions:

  1. Q. (UPSC CSE 2018) "The Tughlaq rulers were pioneers in irrigation works in India." Discuss. (15 marks)

    Direction/Value Points: Start with agrarian base. Highlight Ghiyasuddin's initial efforts, then focus on Firuz Shah Tughlaq's extensive canal network (Rajabwah, Ulughkhani), geographical reach, and purpose. Mention haqq-i-sharb. Discuss impact: increased cultivation, revenue. Conclude affirming pioneering role.

  2. Q. (UPSC CSE 2014) Analyze the economic policies of Alauddin Khalji. How did they impact the Sultanate? (10 marks)

    Direction/Value Points: Revenue Reforms (50% kharaj, masahat, curbing intermediaries). Market Control Policy (Diwan-i-Riyasat, Shahna-i-Mandi, price fixation, state granaries). Taxation (Ghari, Charai). Impact: Increased state treasury, large army, checked inflation (Delhi), hardship for peasants/traders, short-lived.

  3. Q. Discuss the growth of urban centres and trade in the Delhi Sultanate. (Common thematic question)

    Direction/Value Points: Factors for Urban Growth (centralized state, nobility, karkhanas, army, trade). Major Urban Centers (Delhi, Lahore, Cambay, etc.). Internal Trade (Banjaras, sarais). External Trade (Overland & Maritime, imports/exports). Merchant Communities & Financial Instruments (Multanis, Shroffs, Hundi). Impact: Monetization, economic dynamism, cultural exchange.

7. Trend Analysis (Past 10 Years)

Prelims:

  • Often factual, focusing on specific terms (Karkhana, Tanka, Jital), rulers and their economic measures (token currency, canals), or institutions.
  • Tendency to ask about unique initiatives (Muhammad Tughlaq, Firuz Tughlaq).
  • Generally 0-1 question directly from Sultanate economy every 2-3 years, often integrated with broader history.

Mains:

  • More analytical, requiring discussion of policies, impact, and significance.
  • Focus on specific rulers' economic contributions (Alauddin Khalji, Tughlaqs).
  • Thematic questions on urbanization, trade, or agrarian structure are probable.
  • Increasing trend to ask about relevance or lessons from historical systems for contemporary issues (e.g., water management).

Overall: Moderately important. Prelims: key terms and ruler-specific policies. Mains: analytical understanding of agrarian structures, trade, urban growth, and state policies.

8. Original MCQs for Prelims
  1. Q. Consider the following statements regarding the agrarian economy under the Delhi Sultanate:
    • 1. The Rahat or Persian wheel significantly decreased the efficiency of well irrigation.
    • 2. Firuz Shah Tughlaq is known for constructing an extensive network of canals and levying an irrigation tax called haqq-i-sharb.
    • 3. The Diwan-i-Amir-Kohi was a department established by Alauddin Khalji to promote cash crop cultivation.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    • (a) 1 and 2 only
    • (b) 2 only (Answer)
    • (c) 2 and 3 only
    • (d) 1, 2 and 3

    Explanation: Statement 1 is incorrect (it increased efficiency). Statement 3 is incorrect (Muhammad bin Tughlaq established it for general agricultural development).

  2. Q. With reference to trade during the Delhi Sultanate, the term 'Multanis' primarily referred to:
    • (a) A community of weavers from Multan specializing in fine cotton textiles.
    • (b) Foreign Muslim merchants who dominated the maritime trade through Gujarati ports.
    • (c) Hindu merchants and financiers who were prominent in overland trade with Central Asia. (Answer)
    • (d) A guild of Banjaras responsible for transporting grains to the imperial Karkhanas.

    Explanation: Multanis were predominantly Hindu merchants and sahukars (financiers) prominent in long-distance overland trade.

9. Original Descriptive Questions for Mains
  1. Q. "The Delhi Sultanate witnessed not just an expansion of agriculture but also a significant commercialization of it." Critically evaluate this statement, highlighting the factors responsible and its impact on the economy. (15 marks, 250 words)

    Key Points: Factors (urban demand, cash revenue, trade networks, cash crops). Evidence (specialized production, active trade, role of merchants). Impact (monetisation, market growth, raw materials for crafts, surplus, peasant differentiation). Critical Evaluation (not uniform, subsistence farming still dominant, vulnerability). Conclusion (significant trend).

  2. Q. To what extent did technological advancements during the Delhi Sultanate period contribute to economic changes? Illustrate with examples. (10 marks, 150 words)

    Key Points: Persian Wheel (agricultural expansion), Spinning Wheel (textile boost), Paper Making (admin/trade efficiency), Arch and Dome (urban development, labor). Extent (catalysts, uneven diffusion). Conclusion (crucial drivers of productivity and activity).