Introduction & Summary
The Vijayanagara Empire, flourishing from the mid-14th to the mid-17th century, stands as a monumental edifice in South Indian history. Established by Harihara I and Bukka I, it rose as a significant power, often seen as a bulwark against the Turkic sultanates of the Deccan. Its capital, Vijayanagara (modern Hampi), was renowned globally for its splendor and wealth.
The empire made remarkable contributions to administration, particularly the Nayankara and Ayagar systems, and fostered a vibrant economy based on agriculture and extensive trade. Culturally, it patronized Hinduism and saw a golden age of Telugu, Kannada, and Sanskrit literature, alongside a distinctive style of Dravidian temple architecture. Despite its eventual decline after the Battle of Talikota (1565), its legacy profoundly influenced the socio-political and cultural landscape of South India. Foreign travelers' accounts provide invaluable insights into its grandeur and complexities.
Origin and Political History
Theories of Origin
- Founded by Harihara I and Bukka I, sons of Sangama.
- Debate on Early Service: Served under Kakatiyas or Hoysalas. Some theories suggest Kampili kingdom feudatories.
- Inspiration: Traditionally by sage Vidyaranya of Sringeri Matha.
- Motive: Commonly cited as resisting Turkic Sultanates and protecting Hindu Dharma. Modern scholarship suggests also regional political ambitions & resource control.
Nature of State
Historians debate the nature of the Vijayanagara state:
- Feudal State: Due to land grants (Amaram) to Nayakas similar to European feudalism.
- Segmentary State (Burton Stein): King with ritual sovereignty, real power dispersed among local chiefs (Nayakas).
- Centralized State (Karashima): Greater central control through bureaucracy, revenue, and military. Nayankara as a tool for state power.
Likely a monarchy blending centralized control and decentralized local power, shifting with ruler strength.
Dynasties of Vijayanagara
Vijayanagara Administration
Central Administration
- King (Raya): Supreme authority, hereditary, divine association (e.g., KDR). Elaborate court.
- Council of Ministers: Advised king. Key officials: Pradhani (PM), Rayasam (Secretary), Karyakarta (Executive agent). Imperial Secretariat (Karanikkam).
Provincial Admin
- Empire divided into Rajyas or Mandalams (provinces).
- Subdivided into Nadus (districts), Sthalas (sub-districts), Gramas (villages).
- Governors (royal princes, nobles, commanders) had considerable autonomy, maintained order, collected revenue, supplied troops.
Nayankara System
- Key Feature: Military chiefs (Nayakas or Amaranayakas) granted territories called Amaram (revenue assignments) in lieu of cash salaries.
- Responsibilities: Maintain soldiers (foot, cavalry, elephants), pay annual tribute, administer territory, collect revenue.
- Nature: Provided military strength but also led to decentralization; powerful Nayakas could be semi-independent.
Ayagar System
- Local Village Admin: Managing village affairs through hereditary officials (usually 12), known as Ayagars.
- Important Ayagars: Senabova/Karnam (accountant), Talaiyari/Talari (watchman), Nirganti (waterman).
- Responsibilities: Local order, revenue collection, dispute adjudication, common lands. Granted tax-free lands (manyams).
- Strengthened local autonomy, ensured continuity.
Revenue System
- Principal Source: Land revenue (1/6th to 1/4th or 1/3rd). Land surveyed, classified, assessed.
- Other Sources: Taxes on professions, house tax, market taxes, tolls, customs duties, judicial fines, tribute from feudatories/Nayakas.
- Temples controlled large lands and contributed to economy.
Military & Judicial
- Military: Large standing army. Crucial cavalry (Arabian/Persian horses). Infantry, archers (Turkish), elephants. Forts vital. Use of firearms increased.
- Judicial: King highest court. Dharma (Hindu law) and customs. Hierarchy of courts. Village panchayats. Severe punishments.
Vijayanagara Economy
Agriculture
- Prosperous agrarian base in river valleys (Krishna, Tungabhadra, Kaveri).
- Irrigation Works: Heavy investment in tanks, canals, dams (e.g., Tungabhadra dam by Deva Raya I, Anantaraja Sagara).
- Crops: Rice, millets, pulses, sugarcane, cotton, oilseeds, spices. Horticulture.
- Landholding: Individuals, village communities, temples (Devadana), Brahmins (Brahmadeya).
Industries & Crafts
- Textiles: Most important, cotton and silk were major exports. Flourishing weaving centers.
- Metalwork: Iron smelting, copper/bronze casting, goldsmiths.
- Shipbuilding: On coasts.
- Stone Carving: Reached great heights.
- Diamond Mining: Golconda region famous, major trade item.
Trade & Commerce
- Internal Trade: Flourishing with organized markets (santais, petais). Guilds of merchants (Vira Banajigas, Chettis).
- External Trade: Extensive maritime trade via Malabar (Calicut, Bhatkal) & Coromandel (Pulicat) coasts.
- Imports: Horses (crucial), elephants, pearls, copper, luxury fabrics.
- Exports: Textiles, rice, sugar, spices, iron ore, diamonds, saltpeter.
- Partners: Portuguese (major for horses), Arabs, Persians, Chinese, SE Asia, East African ports.
Coinage
- Issued large numbers of gold, silver, and copper coins.
- Gold Coins: Varaha (Pagoda) – most famous. Featured deities (Vishnu, Shiva-Parvati) or animals. Fractional coins (Hon, Pratapa).
- Silver Coins: Tara.
- Copper Coins: Jital or Kasu.
- Legends in Kannada, Telugu, or Nagari scripts.
Urban Centers
- Vijayanagara (Hampi): The capital, vast, populous, wealthy. Described by foreign travelers for fortifications, markets, temples, palaces.
- Other Centers: Penukonda, Chandragiri, Vellore, Pulicat, Bhatkal, Tirupati, Kanchipuram, Srirangam (administrative, commercial, religious hubs).
Society and Culture
Social Structure
- Hierarchical society based on Varna system with numerous Jatis (castes).
- Brahmins: High positions (priests, scholars, advisors, administrators), influential, received land grants.
- Kshatriyas (Rachavaru/Raju): Ruling and warrior class (royal family, Nayakas).
- Komatis/Chettis: Prominent trading communities.
- Vellalas/Reddis/Kamma: Dominant agricultural communities.
- Right Hand (Valangai) & Left Hand (Idangai) divisions: Broad social groupings, often in conflict over status.
- Untouchability was practiced.
Position of Women
- Varied status based on class/region.
- Educated & Accomplished: Royal/elite women in literature, music, arts, sometimes administration/warfare (e.g., Gangadevi - Madura Vijayam).
- Women served as palace guards, accountants, attendants.
- Devadasi System: Temple dancers.
- Sati (Sahagamana): Prevalent, especially among ruling classes/Nayakas (attested by Nuniz).
- Child marriage, polygyny, dowry were common.
Religious Life
- Predominantly Hindu, rulers were great patrons.
- Vaishnavism: Especially Sri Vaishnavism, significant royal patronage (e.g., Krishnadevaraya). Venkateshwara of Tirupati highly revered.
- Shaivism: Widely followed, patronized. Royal tutelary deity: Virupaksha at Hampi.
- Religious Tolerance: Muslims employed in army/admin, allowed to build mosques freely. Jainism also existed.
- Temples: Major socio-religious & economic institutions (landowners, employers, learning centers, banking).
- Mahanavami Festival: Celebrated with extraordinary pomp at capital, King displayed power, received tribute (described by Paes, Razzaq).
Education & Learning
- Temples and Mathas (monasteries) were key centers of traditional learning (Vedas, shastras, Puranas, logic).
- Agraharas (Brahmin villages) also promoted learning.
- Royal court was a hub of scholars and poets.
- Patronage extended to Sanskrit and regional languages (Telugu, Kannada, Tamil).
Literature: A Golden Age
Sanskrit:
- Vidyaranya (Advaita scholar) - Sarvadarshanasangraha.
- Sayana (Vidyaranya's brother) - extensive commentaries on Vedas (Vedartha Prakasha).
- Gangadevi - Madura Vijayam.
- Krishnadevaraya - Jambavati Kalyanam, Usha Parinayam.
Telugu (Zenith under KDR - "Andhra Bhoja"):
- Krishnadevaraya's Amuktamalyada (epic on Andal).
- Ashtadiggajas (Eight Great Poets):
- Allasani Peddana (Manucharitamu) - "Andhrakavitapitamaha."
- Tenali Ramakrishna (Panduranga Mahatmyam) - known for wit.
- Nandi Thimmana, Dhurjati, Pingali Surana, Ramarajabhushanudu, etc.
Kannada:
- Kumara Vyasa - Karnataka Bharata Kathamanjari (Kannada Mahabharata).
- Chamarasa - Prabhulinga Leele.
- Ratnakaravarni (Bharatesha Vaibhava - Jain work).
Tamil:
- Patronized by later Aravidu rulers. Works on grammar, commentaries, devotional literature.
Art and Architecture (Dravidian Style)
Key Features of Temple Architecture
- Material: Hard granite.
- Complexes: Expansive, high prakara walls.
- Mandapas (Halls):
- Kalyana Mandapas: Ornate, open-pillared, for deity marriage ceremonies - characteristic feature.
- Elaborately carved pillars (rearing horses, hippogryphs/Yali, divine figures).
- Hundred/Thousand-pillared Mandapas.
- Rayagopurams: Monumental, towering, elaborately carved temple gateways (popularized by KDR).
- Amman Shrines: Separate shrines for consort goddesses gained prominence.
- Themes: Secular depictions (royal life, processions, epics) on pillars/walls.
Secular Architecture & Sculpture
- Secular Architecture (Hampi):
- Lotus Mahal (Indo-Islamic influence: arches, domes).
- Queen's Bath, Elephant Stables (domed chambers).
- Mahanavami Dibba (multi-tiered platform for ceremonies).
- Sculpture: Integral to temple architecture. Profuse, intricate carvings (deities, Puranic scenes, animals, floral motifs).
- Monolithic Sculptures: Large, single-stone carvings (e.g., Lakshmi Narasimha, Badavi Linga at Hampi).
- Metal casting (bronze idols) continued. Portrait sculptures of rulers.
Prominent Examples & Paintings
Hampi (Capital)
- Virupaksha Temple: Ancient, enlarged during Vijayanagara, principal deity.
- Vithalaswamy Temple: Most splendid. Stone Chariot (Garuda shrine), musical pillars (Saregama pillars).
- Hazara Ramaswamy Temple: Royal chapel, extensive bas-reliefs from Ramayana.
- Krishnaswamy Temple: Built by KDR for Orissa victory.
Temples at Other Centers
- Lepakshi (AP): Veerabhadra temple. Famous for exquisite murals on ceilings, monolithic Nandi, hanging pillar.
- Srirangam: Added gopurams and mandapas to Ranganathaswamy temple.
- Kanchipuram: Kalyana mandapas, gopurams in Varadaraja Perumal and Ekambareshwarar temples.
- Tadipatri (AP): Bugga Ramalingeswara and Chintalarayaswami temples.
Painting (Murals)
- Murals adorned temple ceilings and walls.
- Examples:
- Lepakshi murals: Extensive, well-preserved. Depict Puranic scenes (Shiva, Kiratarjuniya), Ramayana, Mahabharata, social life. Vibrant colors, bold lines.
- Virupaksha temple (Hampi): Murals on Ranga Mandapa ceiling (Vidyaranya's procession, Arjuna winning Draupadi).
- Show distinct style, linking earlier traditions (Ajanta) and later Nayaka paintings.
Foreign Travellers' Accounts
Invaluable primary sources offering unique perspectives on Vijayanagara's grandeur.
Nicolo Conti (Italian, c. 1420-1421)
- Visited during the reign of Deva Raya I.
- Described the city of Vijayanagara, its fortifications, population, currency, festivals (especially Mahanavami), and social customs like Sati. Noted the king had thousands of wives.
Abdur Razzaq (Persian, c. 1443-1444)
- Visited during the reign of Deva Raya II.
- Left detailed, laudatory accounts of Hampi ("a city like which the pupil of the eye has never seen...").
- Described its seven rings of fortifications, bustling markets, king's palace, treasury, Mahanavami festival, and administrative efficiency.
Duarte Barbosa (Portuguese, c. 1500-1516)
- Travelled extensively, including Vijayanagara territories during Krishnadevaraya's early reign.
- Provided valuable information on trade (especially Malabar coast ports), products, social customs, and religious practices.
Domingo Paes (Portuguese, c. 1520-1522)
- Visited during the reign of Krishnadevaraya.
- Left vivid, admiring accounts of KDR's personality, administrative abilities, and justice.
- Described Hampi in great detail: its size (comparable to Rome), markets, temples, palaces, irrigation systems, and the magnificent Mahanavami festival.
- Considered one of the most important accounts for understanding Vijayanagara at its zenith.
Fernao Nuniz (Portuguese, c. 1535-1537)
- Spent about three years in Vijayanagara during the reign of Achyuta Deva Raya.
- Provided historical information (often legendary for earlier periods), details about court life, palace intrigues, Mahanavami festival, army organization, and social customs like Sati among noblewomen and women in various occupations.
Importance & Limitations of Accounts
Importance:
- Provide eye-witness perspectives, corroborating indigenous sources.
- Offer insights into daily life, urban landscape, economic activities.
- Help understand international connections and external perceptions.
Limitations:
- Potential biases, misunderstandings, or exaggerations.
- Limited access to all aspects of society/administration.
- Focus often on the elite and capital.
Contemporary Relevance
Hampi: UNESCO World Heritage Site
- Symbol of India's rich medieval past, attracting tourism and academic interest.
- Ongoing conservation & restoration by ASI and international organizations (Global Heritage Fund).
- Part of "Adopt a Heritage: Apni Dharohar, Apni Pehchaan" scheme for maintenance.
- Recent efforts include restoration of mandapas, stabilization of structures, site management.
Broader Impact & Research
- Water Management: Sophisticated hydraulic systems offer insights into sustainable water management.
- Cultural Legacy: Continues to influence South Indian art, music (Carnatic), dance, and literature. Many temples still active.
- Identity Politics: Invoked in regional identity narratives in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh/Telangana.
- Archaeological Findings: Occasional discoveries add to understanding (e.g., Panchaloha idol unit unearthed in Hampi, 2020).
- New academic studies use epigraphy, archaeology, reinterpretations for deeper understanding.
UPSC Previous Year Questions
Prelims MCQs
-
Regarding the taxation system of Krishnadeva, the ruler of Vijayanagar, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2016)
1. The tax rate on land was fixed depending on the quality of the land.
2. Private owners of workshops paid an industries tax.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2Answer: (c) Both 1 and 2
-
Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2019 - Adapted)
1. Abdur Razzaq, an ambassador of Shah Rukh, visited the Vijayanagara kingdom.
2. Domingo Paes described the Mahanavami festival as a grand nine-day event.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2Answer: (c) Both 1 and 2
Mains Questions
-
Krishnadevaraya, the king of Vijayanagar, was not only an accomplished scholar himself but was also a great patron of learning and literature. Discuss. (UPSC 2016, 15 marks)
Key Points for Answer
- Krishnadevaraya's own works: Amuktamalyada (Telugu), Jambavati Kalyanam (Sanskrit).
- Patronage of Telugu: "Ashtadiggajas" (Allasani Peddana, Tenali Ramakrishna), flourishing of Prabandha style.
- Patronage of Sanskrit and other regional languages.
-
Explain the social and economic aspects of the Vijayanagara Empire with special reference to the accounts of foreign travellers. (UPSC 2013 - Adapted)
Key Points for Answer
- Social: Caste system, women's status (Sati - Nuniz, Devadasis), festivals (Mahanavami - Paes, Razzaq).
- Economic: Agriculture (Paes on tanks), trade (Paes, Razzaq), imports (horses - all), exports (Barbosa), wealth of city.
- Critical assessment of traveller accounts (biases, value).