Mughal Power: Establishment & Consolidation

Introduction & Summary

The establishment of the Mughal Empire in India by Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur in 1526 marked a watershed moment in Indian history. It signified the end of the Delhi Sultanate's dominance and the beginning of a new imperial era characterized by a rich cultural synthesis and a highly centralized administration, particularly under Akbar.

This period, spanning from Babur's victory at Panipat to the early consolidation under Akbar, witnessed initial struggles, a brief Afghan interregnum under the Surs, and ultimately, the laying of a strong foundation for one of India's most significant empires. The policies and administrative innovations, especially those of Sher Shah Suri and later Akbar, had a lasting impact on the subcontinent.

Source: Synthesized from NCERT Class VII Our Pasts - II, Class XII Themes in Indian History Part II - Theme 8 & 9; Satish Chandra, History of Medieval India; IGNOU BA/MA History Material

Core Content: Rulers & Eras

Key Rulers & Interregnum Timeline

1

Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur

1526-1530

Founder of the Mughal Empire. Victor at Panipat and Khanwa, laying the initial foundations.

2

Nasir-ud-din Muhammad Humayun

1530-1540 & 1555-1556

Faced internal challenges and Afghan resurgence, leading to a period of exile. Re-established empire just before his death.

3

The Sur Empire (Afghan Interregnum)

c. 1540-1555

Established by Sher Shah Suri, a brief but brilliant period of administrative innovations.

4

Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar

1556-1605

The Great Mughal, who consolidated, expanded, and built a stable, inclusive empire.

5.1.1: Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur (1526-1530) – Founder

Background

Timurid Prince: Descended from Timur (on his father's side) and Genghis Khan (through his mother, Qutlugh Nigar Khanum, a descendant of Chagatai Khan). This lineage provided prestige and a claim to legitimacy.
Born in 1483 in Ferghana (modern Uzbekistan).
Lost his ancestral kingdom of Ferghana due to Uzbek invasions and internal strife.
After years of wandering, he captured Kabul in 1504, which became his base for Indian expeditions.
Source: Satish Chandra, History of Medieval India

Indian Invasions

Conducted early raids into Punjab.
Received invitations from Daulat Khan Lodi (Governor of Punjab) and Alam Khan Lodi (uncle of Ibrahim Lodi), who sought his help against Ibrahim Lodi, the Sultan of Delhi.
Rana Sanga of Mewar also reportedly extended an invitation initially, hoping Babur would weaken the Lodis and leave.
Source: NCERT Class VII, Our Pasts - II

Key Battles and Conquests:

First Battle of Panipat (1526)

Opponent: Ibrahim Lodi, Sultan of Delhi.
Outcome: Decisive victory for Babur; Ibrahim Lodi killed.
Reasons for Success: Artillery (Ustad Ali Quli, Mustafa Rumi), Tulughma Tactics, Araba System, Disciplined army.
Significance: Established Mughal rule in Delhi and Agra. Marked the end of the Lodi dynasty and Delhi Sultanate.

Battle of Khanwa (1527)

Opponent: Rana Sanga (Sangram Singh) of Mewar, leading a formidable Rajput confederacy.
Outcome: Decisive victory for Babur.
Significance: Secured and consolidated Mughal position in North India. Removed the most powerful contender. Babur assumed the title of "Ghazi".

Battle of Ghagra (1529)

Opponent: Afghan chiefs of Bihar and Bengal, led by Mahmud Lodi.
Outcome: Babur defeated the Afghan confederacy.
Significance: Consolidated Mughal control over the Gangetic plains up to Bihar.

Character & Legacy

Skilled General, Scholar & Poet. Wrote his autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Baburi or Baburnama, in Chagatai Turkic.
Introduced new military tactics (Tulughma, Araba) and effective use of gunpowder artillery on a large scale in North India.
Laid the foundation for a new, powerful, and long-lasting empire in India.
Died in Agra in December 1530. Initially buried at Aram Bagh (Agra), later his remains were taken to Kabul as per his wish.

5.1.2: Nasir-ud-din Muhammad Humayun (1530-1540 & 1555-1556) – Trials & Tribulations

Early Challenges

Inherited a non-consolidated empire, with many Afghan and Rajput chiefs still hostile.
Empty Treasury: Babur's generosity and continuous warfare had depleted the treasury.
Ambitions of his Brothers: Kamran, Askari, Hindal (division of empire proved a major source of weakness).
Afghan Threat: Resurgence of Afghans under leaders like Mahmud Lodi and, more significantly, Sher Khan Suri.
Bahadur Shah of Gujarat: A powerful and ambitious ruler posing a threat from the west.
Source: Satish Chandra, Medieval India

Key Setbacks & Exile

Conflicts with Bahadur Shah of Gujarat (1535-36) - initial success, then lost gains.
Battle of Chausa (26 June 1539): Decisively defeated by Sher Khan. Humayun narrowly escaped. Sher Khan assumed title Sher Shah.
Battle of Kannauj/Bilgram (17 May 1540): Again decisively defeated by Sher Shah, forced into 15 years of exile.
Wandered in Sindh, Rajasthan. Found refuge with Shah Tahmasp of Persia. Akbar born in Umerkot (1542) during his fugitive period.

Restoration & Legacy

Restoration of Power: Took advantage of Sur dynasty instability. Defeated Sikandar Sur at the Battle of Sirhind (June 1555).
Died January 1556 from accidental fall from his library (Sher Mandal), only months after regaining his empire.
Cultured and learned man, but lacked Babur's military genius and decisiveness. Historian Stanley Lane-Poole: "Humayun tumbled through life, and he tumbled out of it."
Laid foundation for Dinpanah city. Humayun's Tomb (completed by Haji Begum, UNESCO site) is a precursor to the Taj Mahal.
Humayun Nama written by his sister Gulbadan Begum, providing insights into Mughal household.

5.1.3: The Sur Empire (c. 1540-1555) – A Brief but Brilliant Interlude

Sher Shah Suri (Farid Khan, c. 1540-1545)

Early Life & Rise: Original name Farid Khan, son of Hasan Khan, a small jagirdar of Sasaram. Earned "Sher Khan" for killing a tiger. Briefly joined Mughal service under Babur (1527-28), gaining firsthand knowledge of Mughal military methods.

Conquests:

Consolidated his hold over Bihar and Bengal.
Conquered Malwa (1542), Raisin (1543), Multan, and Sindh.
Campaigned in Marwar against Maldeo Rathore, winning the hard-fought Battle of Sammel (1544). Famous remark: "I had nearly lost the empire of Hindustan for a handful of millet (bajra)."

Administrative Reforms: Blueprint for Akbar

Sher Shah's administrative genius is widely acknowledged. Many of his innovations were adopted and refined by Akbar.

Provincial & Central Administration

Strong central supervision. Empire divided into:

Sarkars (Districts): Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran (Chief Shiqdar - law/order), Munsif-i-Munsifan (Chief Munsif - revenue/civil justice).
Parganas (Sub-districts): Shiqdar, Munsif/Amin, Qanungo (land records), Karkuns (clerks).

Strict control over officials, regular transfers to prevent vested interests.

Land Revenue System

Standardized measurement: Used Gaz-i-Sikandari (Sikandar Lodi's yard).
Land classified into good, middling, and bad categories based on fertility.
State share: Fixed at one-third (1/3rd) of the average produce, payable in cash or kind (cash preferred).
Introduced Patta (title deed given to peasant) & Qabuliyat (deed of agreement signed by peasant) for transparency.
System was essentially a Ryotwari system, establishing direct relations between the state and the cultivator (ryot).

Source: Satish Chandra, Medieval India

Military Reforms

Maintained a strong, disciplined, and directly paid standing army.
Revived Alauddin Khalji's system of Dagh (branding of horses) & Chehra (descriptive roll of soldiers) to prevent corruption and proxy.
Direct recruitment of soldiers by the Sultan.
Built and garrisoned new forts at strategic locations (e.g., Rohtas Fort).

Currency Reforms

Introduced standardized gold (Mohur), silver (Rupiya), and copper (Dam) coins of high purity and fixed weight.
The silver Rupiya (approx. 178 grains troy) became the standard currency for centuries, forming the basis of British Indian and modern Indian/Pakistani currency.
Abolished old and mixed-metal coinage.

Infrastructure & Communication

Built and repaired an extensive network of roads (about 1700 sarais built).
Most famous was the Grand Trunk Road (Sadak-i-Azam), renovated and extended from Sonargaon (Bengal) to the Indus River.
Built Sarais (rest houses) at regular intervals (every 2 kos), also served as dak chowkis (postal stations).
Ensured safety of highways; local headmen (muqaddams) were held responsible for crimes in their areas.

Trade & Justice

Facilitated trade by abolishing many internal customs duties and cesses.
Levied customs duties only at two points: at entry and at sale. Standardized weights and measures.
Known for impartial justice; administered it without bias. Sultan was the highest court of appeal.

Architectural Contributions

Purana Qila (Old Fort) in Delhi, including the impressive Qila-i-Kuhna Masjid.
His own magnificent Mausoleum at Sasaram (Bihar), built in an artificial lake, a masterpiece of Indo-Islamic architecture.
Rohtas Fort (now in Pakistan, a UNESCO World Heritage site) was built under his orders.

Successors & Decline

Islam Shah (1545-1554): Sher Shah's younger son, largely maintained his father's administrative system. More autocratic.
Muhammad Adil Shah (1554-1555): Nephew of Sher Shah. Incompetent, authority largely wielded by his able Hindu general and Wazir, Hemu.
The weakness and internal conflicts among Sher Shah's successors paved the way for Humayun's return.

Sher Shah died in May 1545 from an accidental gunpowder explosion during the siege of Kalinjar fort in Bundelkhand.

5.1.4: Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar (1556-1605) – The Great Mughal

Accession & Early Years

Born on October 15, 1542, at Umerkot (Sindh).
Enthroned at Kalanaur (Punjab) on February 14, 1556, at the young age of 13.
Regency of Bairam Khan (1556-1560): Loyal and capable noble, became Akbar's regent and tutor.
Second Battle of Panipat (5 November 1556): Mughal forces (led by Bairam Khan) decisively defeated Hemu (general of Muhammad Adil Shah Sur). Secured the Mughal throne for Akbar and ended the Afghan Sur challenge definitively.
Fall of Bairam Khan (1560): Dismissed due to court intrigues (e.g., Maham Anaga) and Akbar's desire to assume full sovereign powers.
Source: NCERT Class VII, Our Pasts - II

Conquests & Expansion

Akbar pursued a policy of systematic conquest and annexation.

North India: Malwa (1561), Gondwana (1564 - Rani Durgavati), Rajputana (Chittor 1568, Ranthambore 1569), Gujarat (1572-73), Bengal and Bihar (1574-76), Kashmir (1586), Sindh (1591), Orissa (1592), Baluchistan and Makran (1595). Kandahar (1595) recovered peacefully, securing NW frontier.
Deccan Campaigns: Initiated southward expansion. Ahmednagar (faced Chand Bibi, partially annexed 1600). Khandesh (Asirgarh captured 1601 - Akbar's last conquest).

Administrative System

Akbar established a robust and centralized administrative system, a hallmark of Mughal rule.

Mansabdari System: A system of ranking government officials (civil and military) based on Zat (personal rank and salary) and Sawar (number of horsemen to be maintained).
Jagirdari System: Assignment of land revenue (not land itself) in lieu of salary to Mansabdars.
Land Revenue System (Dahsala/Zabti System): Developed by Raja Todar Mal. Based on average produce and prices over ten years. Standardized measurement, classification of land, fixed state share.
Well-defined Central and Provincial Structure with specific departments and officials.

Rajput Policy: Cornerstone of State-building

Objectives: Secure loyalty and cooperation of powerful Rajput warrior class, ensure stability, gain loyal recruits, consolidate alliances.
Methods: Matrimonial Alliances (Akbar married Rajput princesses, e.g., Harkha Bai of Amber, 1562; families not forced to convert). High Posts to Rajput Chiefs (Raja Man Singh, Raja Bhagwant Das). Respect for Religion & Customs. Internal Autonomy (watan jagirs).
Resistance: Mewar was most prominent (Rana Udai Singh, Maharana Pratap). Battle of Haldighati (18 June 1576) – Pratap defeated but continued guerrilla warfare. Akbar captured Chittor (1568) & Ranthambore (1569).
Impact: Secured active support of most Rajput states, greatly strengthened Mughal Empire. Contributed to composite ruling class and syncretic culture.

Religious Policy: Evolution & Sulh-i-Kul

Early Phase: Initially orthodox Sunni Muslim, influenced by conservative Ulema.
Phase of Inquiry & Liberalism (Post-1560s): Abolished Pilgrim Tax (1563) & Jizya (1564, effectively 1579-80). Abolished enslaving prisoners of war.
Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) at Fatehpur Sikri (1575): Opened to scholars of all religions (Shias, Sufis, Hindu Pandits, Jain monks, Zoroastrian priests, Christian Jesuits). Debates disillusioned Akbar with orthodox interpretations.
Mahzar (Decree of Infallibility) (1579): Gave Akbar authority to interpret religious law (Sharia) in disputed cases, serving public good and justice. Declared him Imam-i-Adil (Just Ruler).
Tauhid-i-Ilahi / Din-i-Ilahi (Divine Monotheism) (1582): Not a new religion, but an eclectic socio-religious order or cult emphasizing loyalty to Emperor. Drew tenets from various faiths. Limited membership.
Sulh-i-Kul (Absolute Peace / Universal Harmony): Akbar's guiding state policy. Promoted tolerance, peaceful coexistence, and non-discrimination among different religious groups. Basis of his composite state.

Cultural Contributions & Personality

Great patron of art (Mughal school of painting flourished, Daswanth, Basawan), architecture (Fatehpur Sikri, Agra Fort, Lahore Fort, Humayun's Tomb completion), literature (Abul Fazl – Akbarnama, Ain-i-Akbari – Faizi), and music (Tansen, one of his Navratnas).
Possessed immense courage, a strong physique, and an insatiable curiosity. Though reportedly dyslexic and unable to read or write, he possessed vast knowledge through listening and discussions.
Known for his tolerance, hard work, administrative acumen, and visionary outlook.

Prelims-ready Notes

Babur (1526-30)

Founder, Timurid-Genghis lineage. From Ferghana, captured Kabul (1504).
Battles: 1st Panipat (1526) vs Ibrahim Lodi (artillery, Tulughma); Khanwa (1527) vs Rana Sanga (Ghazi title); Chanderi (1528) vs Medini Rai; Ghagra (1529) vs Afghans.
Baburnama: Autobiography in Chagatai Turkic.
Admin: Jagirs, limited consolidation. Died 1530.

Humayun (1530-40 & 1555-56)

Challenges: Brothers (Kamran, Askari, Hindal), Afghans (Sher Khan), Bahadur Shah (Gujarat).
Key Defeats: Chausa (1539), Kannauj/Bilgram (1540) by Sher Khan.
Exile (1540-55): Persia (Shah Tahmasp), Akbar born (Umerkot, 1542).
Restoration: Battle of Sirhind (1555) vs Sikandar Sur.
Death (1556): Fall from library. Dinpanah city. Humayun Nama by Gulbadan Begum.

Sher Shah Suri (1540-45)

Farid Khan. From Sasaram. Defeated Humayun.
Conquests: Bengal, Malwa, Marwar (Battle of Sammel, 1544). Died 1545 (Kalinjar).
Admin Reforms: Sarkars/Parganas (Shiqdar, Munsif, Qanungo). Land revenue (measurement, classification, 1/3rd share, Patta-Qabuliyat). Military (Dagh, Chehra). Currency (Silver Rupiya, Copper Dam). Roads (Grand Trunk Road), Sarais, Dak Chowkis.
Architecture: Purana Qila (Delhi), Mausoleum (Sasaram).

Akbar (1556-1605)

Accession: Age 13, Kalanaur. Bairam Khan (Regent).
2nd Battle of Panipat (1556): Bairam Khan defeated Hemu.
Expansion: Malwa, Gondwana, Gujarat, Bengal, Bihar, Kashmir, Sindh, Deccan (Ahmednagar, Khandesh).
Rajput Policy: Matrimonial alliances (Harkha Bai), high posts (Man Singh), autonomy. Resistance from Mewar (Maharana Pratap - Battle of Haldighati, 1576).
Religious Policy: Abolished Jizya (1564/1579), Ibadat Khana (1575), Mahzar (1579), Tauhid-i-Ilahi/Din-i-Ilahi (1582), Sulh-i-Kul.
Admin: Mansabdari, Jagirdari, Dahsala system (Todar Mal).
Culture: Patron of art, architecture (Fatehpur Sikri), literature (Abul Fazl), music (Tansen).

Summary Table: Key Policies/Events

Ruler/Event	Year(s)	Key Opponent(s)	Significance/Outcome
Babur
1st Battle of Panipat	1526	Ibrahim Lodi	Foundation of Mughal Empire, end of Lodis
Battle of Khanwa	1527	Rana Sanga	Consolidated Mughal power in North India
Battle of Ghagra	1529	Mahmud Lodi (Afghans)	Secured Gangetic plains
Humayun
Battle of Chausa	1539	Sher Khan Suri	Humayun defeated, Sher Khan becomes Sher Shah
Battle of Kannauj	1540	Sher Shah Suri	Humayun exiled, Sur Empire established
Battle of Sirhind	1555	Sikandar Sur	Humayun restored to power
Sher Shah Suri	1540-1545	Humayun, Rajputs	Established Sur Empire, major administrative & currency reforms
Akbar
2nd Battle of Panipat	1556	Hemu	Secured Mughal throne for Akbar
Abolition of Jizya	1564/1579-80		Liberal religious measure, part of Sulh-i-Kul
Ibadat Khana Estd.	1575		Inter-faith dialogues, shaped Akbar's religious views
Battle of Haldighati	1576	Maharana Pratap	Mughal victory, but Pratap continued resistance
Mahzar Declaration	1579		Akbar as Imam-i-Adil, authority to interpret religious law
Tauhid-i-Ilahi	1582		Eclectic order promoting unity

Mains-ready Analytical Notes

Major Debates/Discussions

Humayun's Failures: Reasons for his inability to consolidate Babur's conquests – his own character flaws (indecisiveness, bouts of lethargy, opium), strong opposition (Sher Shah, Bahadur Shah), and the challenge from his brothers. His failures highlight the tenuous nature of early Mughal rule.
Sher Shah as a Precursor to Akbar: Many of Sher Shah's administrative reforms (land revenue, currency, roads, provincial admin, army) were adopted and refined by Akbar. This demonstrates Sher Shah's administrative genius and his lasting impact, making the Sur interregnum more than just a brief interruption. (Source: Satish Chandra, Medieval India)
Akbar's Religious Policy - Motives & Impact: Was it driven by genuine intellectual curiosity and tolerance, or political expediency to consolidate a diverse empire? Most historians agree it was a mix. Sulh-i-Kul aimed at creating a common citizenship and a loyal, composite ruling class, essential for imperial stability. Its impact was the creation of a more inclusive state, though it faced criticism from orthodox elements.
Nature of Din-i-Ilahi: Was it a new religion or a socio-political cult? The consensus is it was not a new religion but an order or system of discipleship focused on loyalty to the emperor, incorporating eclectic spiritual ideas. Its limited membership supports this.

Historical/Long-term Trends, Continuity & Changes

Continuity: The Mughals continued the earlier Sultanate tradition of a centralized state, albeit with greater sophistication. The idea of jagirs was also a continuity, refined into the Mansabdari system. Indo-Islamic architectural traditions continued to evolve.
Changes:
- Warfare: Large-scale effective use of gunpowder artillery and new cavalry tactics (Babur).
- Administration: Establishment of a highly organized and elaborate bureaucracy under Akbar (Mansabdari, standardized revenue systems). Sher Shah's reforms were a crucial bridge.
- Religious Policy: Akbar's Sulh-i-Kul marked a significant shift towards religious tolerance and inclusiveness as state policy, moving away from a more orthodox Islamic state model.
- Imperial Ideology: Development of a new theory of kingship emphasizing the emperor's divine illumination and role as a spiritual guide (Farr-i-Izadi), articulated by Abul Fazl.
- Scale of Empire: Mughals, particularly under Akbar, built a much larger and more stable empire than the Delhi Sultanate.

Contemporary Relevance/Significance/Impact

Sher Shah's Infrastructure: The Grand Trunk Road remains a major artery. His currency reforms (Rupiya) have a lasting legacy.
Akbar's Sulh-i-Kul: Often invoked in discussions about secularism, pluralism, and religious harmony in modern India. His model of governance with a composite ruling class is studied for nation-building.
Mughal Architecture: Sites like Humayun's Tomb, Fatehpur Sikri, Agra Fort are iconic symbols of India's heritage and major tourist attractions, managed by ASI. (Source: ASI, UNESCO)
Administrative Systems: Elements of Mughal land revenue and local administration influenced later British systems and even post-independence structures.
Real-world/Data-backed Recent Examples & Value-added Points:
- UNESCO World Heritage Sites: Humayun's Tomb (Delhi, inscribed 1993), Fatehpur Sikri (1986), Agra Fort (1983), Rohtas Fort (Pakistan, 1997 - Sher Shah). Their conservation is an ongoing process often highlighted by ASI and in news.
- Government Schemes: Ministry of Culture and Tourism schemes like PRASHAD (Pilgrimage Rejuvenation and Spiritual, Heritage Augmentation Drive) and "Adopt a Heritage: Apni Dharohar, Apni Pehchaan" involve upkeep and development of amenities around such historical sites. (Source: Ministry of Tourism, PIB)

Current Affairs & Recent Developments (Last 1 Year)

Conservation of Fatehpur Sikri & other Mughal sites: ASI frequently undertakes conservation work. Any significant restoration project or new archaeological finding within these sites (e.g., related to water systems, fortifications) would be relevant. (Monitor ASI press releases)
Debates on historical narratives: Public and academic discussions concerning the portrayal of Mughal rulers, particularly Akbar, continue. Any new scholarly work re-evaluating their policies can be noted.
Baburnama/Akbarnama Exhibitions/Translations: Occasionally, new translations or exhibitions of illustrated manuscripts of Baburnama or Akbarnama might occur, highlighting their historical and artistic value. (Check National Museum, New Delhi or similar institutions)
Cultural Events: Events like the "Dharohar Bharat Ki – Punaruthaan Ki Kahani" exhibition by Ministry of Culture (May 2023) showcased India's heritage, including archaeological sites which can feature Mughal era contributions. (Source: PIB, May 23, 2023)
(Note: No major new GI tags or specific technological advances directly related to this early phase of Mughal establishment have been prominent in the last year. The relevance is more in the continued upkeep and interpretation of existing heritage.)

UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Prelims MCQs:

1. Consider the following: The arrival of Babur into India led to the (UPSC CSE 2015)
1. Introduction of gunpowder in the subcontinent
2. Introduction of the arch and dome in the region’s architecture
3. Establishment of Timurid dynasty in the region
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (b) 3 only

Explanation: Gunpowder was known in India before Babur, though he used it effectively on a large scale. Arch and dome architecture was already established during the Sultanate period. Babur's arrival established the Timurid (Mughal) dynasty.

2. With reference to Mughal India, what is/are the difference/differences between Jagirdar and Zamindar? (UPSC CSE 2019)
1. Jagirdars were holders of land assignments in lieu of judicial and police duties, whereas Zamindars were holders of revenue rights without obligation to perform any duty other than revenue collection.
2. Land assignments to Jagirdars were hereditary and revenue rights of Zamindars were not hereditary.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

Answer: (d) Neither 1 nor 2

Explanation: Jagirdars were primarily holders of land assignments (jagirs) for their salary and to maintain troops, not primarily for judicial/police duties (which were separate). Jagirs were transferable, not hereditary. Zamindars had hereditary revenue collection rights over their lands and also often performed local administrative/police functions.

3. Akbar's Ibadat Khana was the place where: (Based on common UPSC themes)
(a) He held private audiences with his ministers.
(b) Religious discussions were held with scholars of various faiths.
(c) He issued royal decrees and farmans.
(d) Revenue collection accounts were audited.

Answer: (b) Religious discussions were held with scholars of various faiths.

Explanation: The Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri was specifically built for theological and philosophical discussions among scholars of different religions.

Mains Questions:

1. Describe the consolidation of Mughal power under Akbar. (UPSC CSE 1983, adapted)

Direction/Value Points:

Start with Akbar's accession challenges (young age, Hemu's threat, Bairam Khan's regency).
Military Conquests: Systematic expansion in North India (Malwa, Gondwana, Gujarat, Bengal-Bihar, NW frontier) and initial foray into Deccan. Mention key battles and annexations.
Rajput Policy: Aims (stability, alliance), methods (matrimonial, posts, autonomy), impact. Mention Mewar's resistance as a contrast.
Administrative Reforms: Mansabdari system, Jagirdari, Land Revenue (Zabti/Dahsala), centralized provincial structure – how these brought stability and strength.
Religious Policy (Sulh-i-Kul): How it fostered unity and reduced internal conflict, creating a broader base of support.
Conclusion: Akbar's multifaceted approach led to a strong, stable, and extensive empire.

2. Sher Shah was a forerunner of Akbar in his administrative reforms. Comment. (Similar to UPSC CSE 1986, 1990, 2001 etc. where Sher Shah's admin is asked)

Direction/Value Points:

Briefly introduce Sher Shah and the context of his rule.
Detail Sher Shah's key administrative reforms: Provincial admin (Sarkars, Parganas), Land Revenue (measurement, classification, Patta-Qabuliyat), Military (Dagh, Chehra), Currency (standardized Rupiya and Dam), Infrastructure (Roads, Sarais, Dak Chowkis), Trade & Commerce facilitation, Justice.
Explain how Akbar adopted and built upon many of these reforms (e.g., land revenue system under Todar Mal, provincial structure, currency).
Acknowledge Akbar's own innovations and the larger scale/duration of his empire.
Conclude that while Akbar's system was more elaborate, Sher Shah laid a remarkable blueprint.

3. Analyze the evolution of Akbar's religious policy and its impact on the Mughal state. (Based on questions like UPSC CSE 2000, 2006 focusing on Akbar's religious ideas/Sulh-i-Kul)

Direction/Value Points:

Trace the phases: Early orthodoxy -> Phase of inquiry (abolition of Jizya/pilgrim tax) -> Ibadat Khana discussions (mention key participants from different faiths) -> Disillusionment with Ulema -> Mahzar -> Tauhid-i-Ilahi.
Explain the core concept of Sulh-i-Kul (Universal Harmony) as the culmination.
Discuss motives: Intellectual curiosity, desire for truth, political necessity of unifying a diverse empire.
Impact on the Mughal state: Broadened the base of the empire by gaining loyalty of diverse groups (especially Rajputs); fostered a sense of common citizenship; reduced religious strife; enhanced emperor's authority; attracted talent from diverse backgrounds.
Mention any limitations or criticisms (e.g., from orthodox sections).
Conclude on its significance for imperial stability and cultural development.