The Mughal State: Nature and Philosophy
Paternalistic Benevolence
The Mughal state projected itself as the guardian and protector of its subjects (riaya). The Emperor was seen as a benevolent father figure, responsible for the welfare, justice, and security of the people. This benevolence was exercised within an autocratic framework where the Emperor's authority was absolute.
Source: Satish Chandra, "Medieval India"
Military-Bureaucratic State
The Mansabdari system formed the backbone, unifying civil and military services. Officials (Mansabdars) held ranks determining status, salary, and military obligations. The state heavily relied on its military strength for expansion, control, and revenue collection, making the army an integral part of its administrative fabric.
Source: Athar Ali, "The Mughal Nobility"
Sharia and Zawabit
Theoretically based on Islamic Law (Sharia), Mughal governance also heavily utilized secular state regulations (Zawabit) for day-to-day administration. Akbar's Sulh-i-Kul policy promoted religious tolerance, guiding statecraft beyond strict Sharia adherence. Aurangzeb, however, leaned more towards Sharia enforcement.
Source: Satish Chandra, NCERT
Debate: Centralization vs. Decentralization
Arguments for Centralization
- Emperor as the ultimate source of all power and authority.
- Detailed regulations and a hierarchical bureaucracy extending to provincial and local levels.
- Mansabdari system created a unified cadre of officials loyal to the Emperor.
- Standardized land revenue systems (e.g., Zabti).
- Regular reporting from provinces to the center. (Irfan Habib)
Arguments for Decentralization
- Vastness of the empire and slow communication made direct and constant central control difficult.
- Significant power wielded by Subedars and Diwans at the provincial level.
- Existence of powerful local chieftains and zamindars who had considerable autonomy.
- Jagirdars, though frequently transferred, exercised considerable power within their jagirs. (Chetan Singh)
Sources for Studying Mughal Administration
Ain-i-Akbari by Abul Fazl
A detailed account of Akbar's administration, revenue system, provincial structure, Mansabdari, army, and social conditions. Invaluable for understanding the inner workings.
Official Documents
Dastur-ul-Amals (rule books), administrative manuals, revenue statistics, and official orders (farmans, nishans, parwanas) provide direct insights.
Foreign Travellers' Accounts
Writings of Europeans like Bernier, Tavernier, Manucci, Hawkins, Roe offer external observations on court, administration, and society, though sometimes biased.
At the Helm: Central Administration
The central administration of the Mughal Empire was a sophisticated hierarchy, largely based on Perso-Timurid traditions, with the Emperor as the absolute sovereign.
Emperor (Badshah)
Supreme head, ultimate authority in all affairs. Projected as possessing Farr-i-Izadi (divine light). Jharokha Darshan reinforced accessibility and authority. Held court in Diwan-i-Aam & Diwan-i-Khas.
Wakil (Prime Minister)
Initially most powerful, chief advisor & deputy (e.g., Bairam Khan). Powers later curtailed or became ceremonial as other ministers gained prominence.
Wazir / Diwan-i-Kul
Head of revenue and finance. Responsible for income, expenditure, fiscal policies, provincial diwans, treasury. Key figures: Raja Todar Mal, Muzaffar Khan Turbati.
Mir Bakhshi
Head of military and paymaster-general. Recruitment, troop registers (Dagh-o-Chehra), Mansabdar appointments/promotions, intelligence via Barids.
Mir Saman (Khan-i-Saman)
Head of imperial household, state Karkhanas (royal workshops), and royal stores. Managed supplies for the royal family and court, production of luxury goods.
Sadr-us-Sudur
Head of ecclesiastical department, religious affairs. Managed religious endowments (Suyurghal/Madad-i-Maash grants). Appointed Qazis and Muftis. Akbar curtailed powers.
Qazi-ul-Quzat (Chief Judge)
Supreme authority in judicial administration after the Emperor. Advised on Sharia law and presided over the central court. Often combined with Sadr-us-Sudur.
Other Key Officials
- Muhtasib: Censor of public morals, ensured Islamic injunctions were followed. Under Aurangzeb, role expanded.
- Daroga-i-Dak Chowki: Superintendent of Posts and Intelligence, managed news carriers (harkaras) and postal runners.
Layers of Governance: Provincial and Local
The Mughal Empire was systematically divided into administrative units, each with its own set of officials mirroring the central structure, yet with a crucial system of checks and balances.
Subas (Provinces)
The empire was divided into Subas (provinces). Akbar started with 12, increasing to 15, and over 20 under Aurangzeb. Key provincial officials included the Subedar (governor, military/executive head, maintained law and order) and the Provincial Diwan (revenue head, appointed by and reported to central Diwan, acting as a check on Subedar's power).
- Subedar (Sipahsalar/Nazim): Executive & Military Head.
- Diwan (Provincial): Revenue Head, independent of Subedar.
- Bakhshi (Provincial): Military admin, intelligence.
- Sadr & Qazi: Religious grants & local judiciary.
- Kotwal: Town administration, law & order in cities.
Sarkars (Districts)
Subas were further divided into Sarkars (districts). The primary officers were the Faujdar, responsible for law and order and suppressing rebellions, and the Amalguzar (or Amil), the chief revenue collector.
- Faujdar: Law and order, military, assisting revenue collection.
- Amalguzar / Amil: Chief revenue collector.
Parganas / Mahals (Sub-districts)
Sarkars were divided into Parganas or Mahals, managed by several key officials. These included the Shiqdar (executive/police), Amin/Munsif (revenue assessment/judicial), Qanungo (land records, hereditary), Bitikchi (accountant), and Fotadar (treasurer).
- Shiqdar: Executive & Police.
- Amin / Munsif: Revenue assessment, judicial.
- Qanungo: Land records, customs.
- Bitikchi / Karkun: Revenue accountant.
- Fotadar / Khazandar: Treasurer.
Village Level
At the base were the villages. The Muqaddam (village headman) maintained law and order and assisted in revenue collection. The Patwari (village accountant) maintained land records. Panchayats continued to function for local disputes, with minimal direct Mughal interference if revenue was paid.
- Muqaddam: Village headman.
- Patwari: Village accountant.
- Panchayats: Local dispute resolution.
The Backbone: Mansabdari System
Introduced by Akbar around 1571 CE, the Mansabdari system was a revolutionary administrative and military structure, unifying civil and military services into a single graded hierarchy.
What is Mansab?
An Arabic word meaning 'rank', 'position', or 'status'. Every official, high or low, was enrolled as a Mansabdar. It determined a Mansabdar's personal status, rank in the official hierarchy, and salary.
Appointment & Dismissal
All appointments, promotions, and dismissals were directly by the Emperor. Mansabs were not hereditary, though sons of nobles (khanazads) received preference. Upon a Mansabdar's death, his property and jagir escheated to the state (zabt).
Dual Ranks: Zat and Sawar
Zat Rank
- Determined the Mansabdar's personal status and rank in the official hierarchy.
- Signified his personal salary.
- A higher Zat rank meant higher status and a larger personal income.
Sawar Rank
- Indicated the number of cavalrymen (troopers or tabinan) and horses a Mansabdar was required to maintain.
- Also determined the additional allowance the Mansabdar received for maintaining these troops.
- The actual number of troops maintained could vary based on specific regulations (e.g., Du-aspa Sih-aspa).
Categories within Ranks:
- First class: Sawar rank equal to Zat rank.
- Second class: Sawar rank half or more than half of Zat rank.
- Third class: Sawar rank less than half of Zat rank. (Athar Ali)
Merits and Demerits of Mansabdari
- Created a unified and centrally controlled administrative and military structure.
- Ensured direct loyalty of officials to the Emperor.
- Maintained a large and relatively efficient standing army without the direct cost to the central treasury when paid by Jagir.
- Allowed for mobility and transferability of officials, preventing entrenchment of local interests.
- Potential for corruption (e.g., false musters, maintaining fewer troops than required).
- Loyalty of the troops often lay more with their immediate Mansabdar than with the Emperor.
- The system became increasingly complex and unwieldy, especially with the introduction of various sub-ranks.
- Led to the Jagirdari crisis in the later Mughal period, as available land for Jagirs (Paibaqi) became scarce.
Revenue and Rank: The Jagirdari System
The Jagirdari system was the primary method of payment for Mansabdars, assigning them the right to collect land revenue from a specific territory in lieu of a cash salary.
Tankha Jagir
Most common, given in lieu of salary. Highly transferable (every 3-4 years) to prevent Mansabdars from developing local roots and power.
Mashrut Jagir
Conditional jagirs, granted upon holding a particular post or performing a specific service. Resumed when the condition ceased.
Inam Jagir
Granted without service obligation, typically to learned or religious men. Smaller in extent and value. Similar to Madad-i-Maash.
Watan Jagir
Hereditary jagirs assigned to zamindars and local chieftains (especially Rajputs) in their ancestral homelands. Ensured their loyalty by integrating them into the Mansabdari system.
Jagir vs. Iqta: A Key Distinction
| Feature | Jagir (Mughal) | Iqta (Sultanate) |
|---|---|---|
| Primary Nature | Primarily a fiscal claim (right to collect revenue). | Broader administrative, fiscal, and military responsibilities. |
| Ownership of Land | No ownership of land; only revenue rights. | No ownership of land; only revenue rights. |
| Admin/Judicial Power | Generally did not have direct administrative, judicial, or police powers (remained with imperial officials). | Often had broader powers within the Iqta, including law and order. |
| Transferability | Tankha Jagirs were frequently transferred (3-4 years). | Could be transferable, but sometimes became hereditary. |
| Integration | Part of the Mansabdari system. | Key element of the Sultanate's feudal administrative system. |
The Jagirdari Crisis
A critical problem, emerging significantly under Aurangzeb, where the number of Mansabdars and their salary claims far outstripped the available Jagirs (Paibaqi - land available for assignment). This led to intense competition, delays in grants, and a decline in real revenue (hasil) vs. estimated (jama). Frequent transfers discouraged investment and led to exploitation of peasantry, contributing significantly to Mughal decline.
(Irfan Habib, Athar Ali)
The State's Sustenance: Land Revenue
Land revenue was the backbone of the Mughal economy, and Akbar's administration, especially through Raja Todar Mal, developed a highly sophisticated and standardized system.
Todar Mal's Bandobast / Ain-i-Dahsala (Zabti System)
Measurement (Paimaish)
Land was accurately measured using a standardized Jarib (bamboo joined by iron rings).
Land Classification
Categorized by cultivation continuity: Polaj (continuously cultivated), Parauti (fallow 1-2 years), Chachar (fallow 3-4 years), Banjar (fallow 5+ years). Each assessed differently.
Average Produce (Ray)
Average yield per Bigha for each crop calculated from the previous ten years (Dah-sala).
State Share
Generally fixed at one-third (1/3rd) of the average produce.
Cash Demand (Dastur-ul-Amal)
State's share converted to cash based on average prices from the past ten years in local markets (Dasturs).
Implementation Area
Primarily in core provinces: Delhi, Agra, Lahore, Multan, Allahabad, Awadh, Malwa, parts of Gujarat, Ajmer, Bihar. (Irfan Habib)
Other Land Revenue Systems
- Batai/Ghalla Bakhshi (Crop-sharing): Division of harvested crop between state and peasant in fixed proportions (Khet Batai, Lang Batai, Ras Batai). Prevalent in areas like Thatta, Kabul, Kashmir.
- Nasaq/Kankut (Group Assessment/Estimation): Rough estimate of produce for a village or area to fix revenue. Less precise than Zabti. Prevalent in Bengal, Orissa, Berar, parts of Gujarat.
Suyurghal / Madad-i-Maash Grants
Revenue-free land grants to religious scholars, saints, learned men, Sufis, widows, and needy for maintenance. Administered by Sadr-us-Sudur. Aimed to foster loyalty among religious classes.
Impact on Peasantry
Positive Aspects:
- Security of tenure (with revenue payment).
- Fixed, predictable demand, encouraging cultivation.
- Aimed to protect from over-exaction.
Negative Aspects:
- Rigidity of cash demand, oppressive during crop failures or price fluctuations.
- Collection methods could be harsh.
- Vulnerable to local officials and Jagirdars despite regulations.
(Irfan Habib)
The Sword of Empire: Military Organization
The Mughal military was formidable, primarily organized through the Mansabdari system, relying heavily on its cavalry and advanced artillery.
Cavalry (Aswaran)
The backbone and most important wing. Highly mobile with shock power. Included Bargirs (state-provided horse) and Siledars (owned own horse). Emphasized high-quality horses (Turki, Arabi).
Infantry (Paiks/Ahsham)
Less important than cavalry. Included matchlockmen (Banduqchis), archers, swordsmen, spearmen. Ahsham were often locally recruited, part-time soldiers.
Artillery (Topkhana)
Developed significantly (Babur's effective use). Included heavy cannons for sieges and light artillery (camel/elephant-mounted guns). Mir Atish was in charge.
War Elephants (Filkhana)
Used for shock value, heavy transport, and breaching fort gates. Maintained in imperial stables.
Navy (Nawwara) - A Strategic Flaw
Comparatively weak and largely neglected, as the empire was land-based. Mainly river flotillas for transport and policing. Mughals often relied on European companies for sea trade protection, a significant weakness against rising maritime powers.
(Satish Chandra)
Recruitment & Discipline
Recruitment was primarily done by individual Mansabdars for their contingents. Discipline was maintained through strict imperial regulations:
- Dagh (Branding): Horses were branded to prevent fraud and ensure quality.
- Chehra/Huliya (Descriptive Rolls): Detailed descriptive rolls of soldiers were maintained to prevent impersonation and false musters.
Salaries were disbursed by the Mansabdars to their troops, either from their cash salaries or from the revenue of their Jagirs.
Dispensing Justice: The Judicial System
The Mughal judicial system was a blend of Islamic law, state regulations, and local customs, with the Emperor as the ultimate dispenser of justice.
Sources of Law
- Sharia (Islamic Law): Primary source, especially Hanafi school of Sunni jurisprudence. Applied to Muslims' personal matters and to all in criminal cases (with modifications).
- Zawabit (State Regulations): Secular laws/decrees by Emperor for administrative, revenue, political needs not covered by Sharia.
- Customary Laws: Hindu personal law and local customs were generally allowed for Hindus in civil matters, often administered by Panchayats.
Role of Kotwal
In towns, the Kotwal maintained law and order, regulated markets, supervised weights/measures, kept inhabitant registers, and apprehended criminals. Also held quasi-judicial functions like settling minor disputes.
(Ain-i-Akbari)
Hierarchy of Courts
Emperor
Highest court of appeal, fountainhead of justice. Held public court (Diwan-i-Mazalim/Aam).
Qazi-ul-Quzat
Chief Judge at capital. Appointed and supervised provincial/local Qazis. Advised Emperor on Sharia.
Provincial & Town Qazis
Administered justice in Subas, major towns, and Parganas.
Muftis
Jurists who interpreted Sharia law for Qazis to help in judgment.
Mir Adl
Judicial officer ensuring implementation of Qazi's judgments.
Jahangir's Chain of Justice (Zanjir-i-Adl)
Mughal Emperors, notably Jahangir, emphasized justice. Jahangir's famous 'Chain of Justice' was a golden chain with a bell outside his palace, allowing petitioners to ring it and seek justice directly from the Emperor, symbolizing his commitment to accessible justice.
(Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri)
Key Takeaways & Quick Review
Nature of State
Paternalistic, Military-Bureaucratic. Debate on Centralization vs. Decentralization. Based on Sharia + Zawabit. Key source: Ain-i-Akbari.
Central Admin
Emperor (Supreme), Wakil (PM), Wazir/Diwan-i-Kul (Finance), Mir Bakhshi (Military), Mir Saman (Household), Sadr-us-Sudur (Religious), Qazi-ul-Quzat (Chief Judge).
Provincial Admin
Suba (Subedar, Diwan), Sarkar (Faujdar, Amalguzar), Pargana (Shiqdar, Amin, Qanungo), Village (Muqaddam, Patwari).
Mansabdari
Akbar's innovation. Unified civil/military. Zat (personal status/salary) and Sawar (cavalry to maintain). Not hereditary. Salary: Naqdi or Jagir. Dagh & Chehra systems.
Jagirdari
Revenue assignment for salary. Types: Tankha, Mashrut, Inam, Watan. Key issue: Jagirdari Crisis (shortage of Jagirs under Aurangzeb).
Land Revenue
Todar Mal's Bandobast (Zabti): Measurement, classification (Polaj, Parauti, etc.), 1/3rd state share in cash (Dastur-ul-Amal). Others: Batai, Nasaq. Suyurghal/Madad-i-Maash grants.
Summary Table: Key Central Officials
| Official | Department/Role | Key Responsibilities |
|---|---|---|
| Wazir/Diwan-i-Kul | Revenue & Finance | Income/Expenditure, Fiscal Policy, Provincial Diwans |
| Mir Bakhshi | Military Department | Mansabdar admin, Recruitment, Intelligence, Salary Bills |
| Mir Saman | Imperial Household & Karkhanas | Supplies, Royal Workshops, Stores |
| Sadr-us-Sudur | Ecclesiastical Affairs | Religious endowments (Suyurghal), Qazi appointments |
| Qazi-ul-Quzat | Chief Judiciary | Head of Judicial System, Advised on Sharia |
Test Your Knowledge: Previous Year Questions
Consider the following statements:
- In the revenue administration of Delhi Sultanate, the in-charge of revenue collection was known as ‘Amil’.
- The Iqta system of Sultans of Delhi was an ancient indigenous institution.
- The office of ‘Mir Bakshi’ came into existence during the reign of Khalji Sultans of Delhi.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 only
- (b) 1 and 2 only
- (c) 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (a)
Explanation: Statement 1 is correct regarding Amil. Iqta system had Perso-Islamic origins, not indigenous. Mir Bakhshi was a Mughal-era office, though similar functions existed earlier under different names.
With reference to Mughal India, what is/are the difference/differences between Jagirdar and Zamindar?
- Jagirdars were holders of land assignments in lieu of judicial and police duties, whereas Zamindars were holders of revenue rights without obligation to perform any duty other than revenue collection.
- Land assignments to Jagirdars were hereditary and revenue rights of Zamindars were not hereditary.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 only
- (b) 2 only
- (c) Both 1 and 2
- (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: (d)
Explanation: Statement 1 is incorrect; Jagirdars were primarily assigned revenue for military/civil service. Zamindars had obligations beyond mere collection. Statement 2 is incorrect; Jagirs (Tankha) were not hereditary, while Zamindari rights often were. Watan Jagirs were an exception for Jagirdars.
Who among the following Mughal Emperors shifted emphasis from illustrated manuscripts to album and individual portrait?
- (a) Humayun
- (b) Akbar
- (c) Jahangir
- (d) Shah Jahan
Answer: (c)
Explanation: Jahangir had a keen interest in painting, particularly portraits and nature studies, leading to a shift towards albums (muraqqas).
Assess the impact of the Mansabdari system on the Mughal administration and its military strength.
Direction/Value Points:
- Introduction: Define Mansabdari, its introduction by Akbar.
- Impact on Administration: Unified bureaucracy, loyalty to emperor, merit (initially), checks on nobility, central control.
- Impact on Military Strength: Large standing army, standardized contingents (Dagh/Chehra), efficient cavalry.
- Weaknesses/Negative Impact: Corruption, potential for disloyalty of troops to Emperor, Jagirdari crisis linkage, complexity.
- Conclusion: Overall positive for consolidation but developed critical flaws.
Discuss the main features of the Zabti system of land revenue under the Mughals. How far did it provide relief to the peasantry?
Direction/Value Points:
- Introduction: Briefly explain Zabti (Todar Mal's Bandobast).
- Main Features: Measurement (Paimaish), land classification (Polaj, Parauti, etc.), average produce (Ray), state share (1/3rd), cash demand (Dastur).
- Relief to Peasantry (Pros): Fixed demand, security of tenure, encouraged cultivation, protection from arbitrary demands (in theory).
- Limitations/Hardships (Cons): Rigidity of cash payment, problems during crop failure, dependence on honest officials, potential for over-assessment or harsh collection.
- Conclusion: A rational system with benefits, but its success varied and peasants still faced hardships.
"The Mughal provincial administration was a replica of the central administration, yet it incorporated a system of checks and balances." Elaborate.
Direction/Value Points:
- Introduction: Briefly state the structure of Mughal administration.
- Replica of Central Admin: Show parallels – Subedar (like Emperor), Diwan (like central Diwan), provincial Bakhshi, Sadr, Qazi mirroring central counterparts. Similar hierarchy down to Pargana.
- System of Checks and Balances: Subedar vs. Diwan (independent reporting), central appointments/transfers, intelligence network (Waqia-navis), Emperor's tours.
- Limitations of Checks: Vast distances, local influence, corruption.
- Conclusion: The structure aimed for centralized control via replication and checks, with varying degrees of success.