Introduction & Summary
The period following Akbar's reign, encompassing Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb, witnessed the Mughal Empire reach its territorial zenith and cultural apogee, particularly in architecture. However, this era also sowed the seeds of its decline. Jahangir largely continued Akbar's policies, with notable contributions to art. Shah Jahan's reign is celebrated as the "Golden Age of Mughal Architecture" but also saw increased fiscal strain. Aurangzeb expanded the empire to its largest extent but his orthodox religious policies, prolonged Deccan wars, and administrative overstretch significantly weakened the empire, paving the way for its eventual disintegration.
Nur-ud-din Muhammad Jahangir (1605-1627)
Accession & Early Policies
Jahangir ascended the throne smoothly in 1605, upholding Akbar's liberal policies. Issued "Dastur-ul-Amal" (Twelve Edicts) for justice and welfare, including prohibition of certain taxes & punishments. Known for his 'Chain of Justice'.
Revolt of Prince Khusrau (1606)
Khusrau's ambition led to revolt. Supported by Guru Arjan Dev, leading to the Guru's execution in 1606. Khusrau was defeated, captured, and later died in custody. Marked beginning of Mughal-Sikh conflict.
Influence of Nur Jahan
Mehr-un-Nisa, Nur Jahan, became de facto ruler after 1611, especially as Jahangir's health declined. Coins struck in her name, issued farmans. The "Nur Jahan Junta" (father, brother, Prince Khurram) wielded immense power.
Nur Jahan's immense influence and attempts to secure the future of her daughter Ladli Begum (married to Prince Shahryar) led to fissures within the "junta," alienating Prince Khurram and contributing to his rebellion. Her political acumen was undeniable.
Military Campaigns & Territorial Changes
Mewar & Kangra
Rana Amar Singh of Mewar submitted to Mughals in 1615 under liberal terms (no personal attendance, Chittor restored). Strategically important Kangra fort captured in 1620.
Deccan Policy & Malik Ambar
Continued expansion in Deccan. Faced formidable resistance from Ahmednagar's Malik Ambar, master of guerrilla warfare. Prince Khurram led campaigns, achieving temporary successes, earning title Shah Jahan.
Loss of Kandahar (1622)
Strategically vital Kandahar lost to Shah Abbas I of Persia, a major setback. Hampered by Prince Khurram's rebellion, who refused to lead the expedition.
Patronage of Art, Culture & Architecture
Painting: Reached Zenith
Jahangir, a keen connoisseur, emphasized realism, portraiture, flora & fauna. Key painters: Ustad Mansur ("Nadir-ul-Asr"), Abul Hasan ("Nadir-uz-Zaman"). European influence visible.
Architecture: Transition
Transition towards white marble & pietra dura. Notable: Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daulah (Agra, first entirely white marble Mughal structure, "Baby Taj"), Shalimar Bagh (Kashmir).
Literature
His autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, a candid account of his reign. Patronized Persian scholars like Mutamad Khan.
Major Events & Revolts Timeline (Jahangir)
1605
Jahangir's Accession to the Throne
1606
Revolt of Prince Khusrau; Execution of Guru Arjan Dev
1611
Jahangir marries Mehr-un-Nisa (Nur Jahan)
1615
Mewar submits to Mughals (Rana Amar Singh)
1620
Kangra Fort Captured
1622
Loss of Kandahar to Persia; Prince Khurram's Rebellion begins
1626
Revolt of Mahabat Khan
1627
Jahangir's Death
Shihab-ud-din Muhammad Shah Jahan (1628-1658)
The "Golden Age" of Mughal Architecture, but also an era of underlying economic strain.
Accession (1628)
After Jahangir's death, Shah Jahan (Prince Khurram) secured the throne by eliminating rivals like Shahryar, with support from Asaf Khan. Nur Jahan retired from politics.
Military Campaigns & Expansion
More aggressive Deccan policy: Annexed Ahmednagar (1633), secured treaties with Bijapur & Golconda (1636). Recovered Kandahar (1638) but lost it again (1649) after 3 costly failed campaigns. Central Asian campaign (Balkh & Badakhshan, 1646-47) was a costly failure.
Economic Conditions
Generally prosperous first two decades. Huge expenditure on building projects and wars strained the treasury. Severe Famine (1630-32) struck Deccan, Gujarat, Khandesh, leading to immense suffering.
Architectural Zenith
Taj Mahal (Agra)
Built for Mumtaz Mahal (d. 1631), completed c. 1648. Pinnacle of Mughal architecture, using white marble and extensive pietra dura. Chief Architect: Ustad Ahmad Lahori.
Red Fort & Shahjahanabad (Delhi)
New capital city, completed 1648. Red Fort features Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-i-Khas ("If there is a paradise on earth..."), Rang Mahal.
Jama Masjid (Delhi)
One of India's largest mosques, built opposite Red Fort. Other structures: Moti Masjid (Agra Fort), Sheesh Mahal (Lahore Fort).
Painting: Continued to flourish, but shifted to more formal, grand court scenes, imperial portraits. Less individualistic than Jahangir's era. Key painters: Faqirullah Khan, Mir Hashim.
Literature: Persian literature flourished (Padshahnama, Shah Jahan Nama). Hindi poetry also patronized. His eldest son, Dara Shukoh, was a great scholar; translated Upanishads (Sirr-i-Akbar) and wrote Majma-ul-Bahrain (Sufism & Vedanta).
Religious Policy: Initially more orthodox (ordered destruction of newly built Hindu temples in 1633), later softened. Did not reimpose Jizya and continued employing Hindus in high posts.
War of Succession (1657-1658)
Causes & Contenders
Shah Jahan's illness (1657) triggered the war. Four ambitious sons: Dara Shukoh (favored), Shuja (Bengal), Aurangzeb (Deccan, orthodox), Murad Bakhsh (Gujarat). No clear law of primogeniture fueled conflict.
Decisive Battles & Outcome
Shuja defeated at Bahadurpur. Aurangzeb allied with Murad. Decisive victories for Aurangzeb at Dharmat (April 1658) and Samugarh (May 1658) against Dara. Shah Jahan imprisoned. Aurangzeb became emperor.
Elimination of Rivals
Aurangzeb executed Murad Bakhsh (1661) and pursued Shuja (fled to Arakan). Dara Shukoh was captured, declared a heretic, and executed in August 1659. Marked Aurangzeb's ruthless rise to power.
Muhi-ud-din Muhammad Aurangzeb Alamgir (1658-1707)
Apogee of territorial expansion and commencement of decline.
Accession & Early Policies
Assumed title "Alamgir." Consolidated power. Discontinued practices considered un-Islamic: Nauroz, Kalima on coins, Jharokha Darshan, music/dancing at court. Appointed Muhtasibs.
Religious Policy: Orthodox & Controversial
Significant departure from Akbar's liberalism. Reimposition of Jizya (1679) alienated non-Muslims. Ordered destruction of certain Hindu temples (Kashi Vishwanath, Keshav Rai, 1669-70). Executed Guru Tegh Bahadur (1675), intensifying Mughal-Sikh conflict.
Historians debate objectives: enforce Sharia (Sarkar) vs. political consolidation/expediency (Chandra, Habib). While causing disaffection, political and economic factors (Jagirdari crisis, Deccan wars) were also fundamental causes of decline. Percentage of Hindu mansabdars actually increased in later half of his reign.
Military Campaigns & Rebellions (North India)
Suppression of Rebellions
Dealt with Jats (Gokla, Raja Ram), Satnamis (1672 peasant uprising), Sikhs (Guru Gobind Singh formed Khalsa), Bundelas (Chhatrasal).
Rajput Policy & Wars
Intervention in Marwar succession (1678) led to Rathore rebellion (Durgadas Rathore) and Mewar joining. Prince Akbar's revolt (1681) fueled by Rajputs. Strained relations and diverted resources.
Annexations
Palamau (1661) and Chittagong (1666, from Arakanese pirates by Shaista Khan).
The "Deccan Ulcer" – Southern Campaigns
Objectives
Annex Bijapur & Golconda (seen as heretical, colluding with Marathas). Crush rising Maratha power under Shivaji and successors.
Campaigns & Personal Involvement
Persistent campaigns against Marathas (Shivaji, Sambhaji - executed 1689, Rajaram, Tarabai). Annexed Bijapur (1686) & Golconda (1687). Aurangzeb spent last 26 years (1681-1707) in the Deccan, never returning to North India.
Consequences of Deccan Policy
Overstretched Resources: Drained treasury, manpower. Neglect of North: Decline in administration, law & order. Failure to Subdue Marathas: Guerrilla warfare, people's war. Jagirdari Crisis: Scarcity of productive jagirs. Agrarian Distress: Devastated Deccan economy. Major factor in Mughal decline.
End of a Reign
Administration & Culture
Diligent, over-centralized ruler. Decline in imperial art patronage (painting, grand architecture). Patronized Fatawa-i-Alamgiri (Islamic law digest). Badshahi Mosque (Lahore), Bibi ka Maqbara (Aurangabad) built.
Character & Death
Austere, pious, industrious, but rigid and suspicious. His policies & Deccan involvement proved disastrous. Died in Ahmednagar (Deccan) on March 3, 1707, at 89, signaling rapid Mughal decline.
Summary Table: Mughal Rulers After Akbar
| Feature | Jahangir (1605-1627) | Shah Jahan (1628-1658) | Aurangzeb (1658-1707) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Key Event(s) | Nur Jahan's influence, Loss of Kandahar (1622) | Building of Taj Mahal, Loss of Kandahar (1649), War of Succession | Reimposition of Jizya (1679), Deccan Wars, Rajput Conflict |
| Religious Policy | Broadly tolerant, execution of Guru Arjan Dev | Initially orthodox (temple order 1633), later moderate | Orthodox, discriminatory (Jizya, temples), executed Guru Tegh Bahadur |
| Deccan Policy | Continued Akbar's, resistance from Malik Ambar | Aggressive: Annexed Ahmednagar, treaties with Bijapur/Golconda | Annexed Bijapur & Golconda, endless war with Marathas ("Deccan Ulcer") |
| NWF Policy | Lost Kandahar to Persia | Regained & lost Kandahar, failed Balkh-Badakhshan campaign | Focused on internal N. Indian rebellions, less on external NWF |
| Architecture | Itimad-ud-Daulah's Tomb (marble, pietra dura), Gardens | Zenith: Taj Mahal, Red Fort (Delhi), Jama Masjid | Moti Masjid (Delhi Red Fort), Badshahi Mosque (Lahore), Bibi ka Maqbara |
| Painting | Zenith: Realism, nature (Ustad Mansur, Abul Hasan) | Formal, courtly, lavish | Decline of imperial atelier, rise of provincial schools |
| Literature | Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri (autobiography) | Padshahnama, Dara Shukoh's translations | Fatawa-i-Alamgiri, Ruqaat-i-Alamgiri |
| Overall Legacy | Cultural refinement, political instability | Architectural grandeur, fiscal strain | Imperial overstretch, religious strife, start of decline |
Mains-ready Analytical Notes
- Nur Jahan's Influence: Stabilizing force or cause of factionalism? Beni Prasad vs. critics of "Nur Jahan Junta."
- Shah Jahan's Reign – "Golden Age"? Pros: Architectural grandeur, cultural flourishing. Cons: Fiscal strain, famine, costly military failures.
- Aurangzeb's Religious Policy – Prime Cause of Decline? Traditional (Sarkar: religious bigotry) vs. Revisionist (Chandra, Habib, Ali: structural crises like Jagirdari crisis, exacerbated by policies). Increase in Hindu mansabdars complicates simple discrimination claims.
- Aurangzeb's Deccan Policy – A Political Blunder? Colossal misjudgment, draining resources, failure to crush Marathas, neglect of North.
- Continuity: Mansabdari & Jagirdari systems (under strain), Mughal administrative framework, Persian language, growing trade.
- Changes: Shift in religious policy (Akbar's eclecticism to Aurangzeb's orthodoxy). Evolution of art/architecture. Rise of regional powers (Marathas, Sikhs, Jats). Increasing strain on economy. Permanent loss of Kandahar.
- Heritage Management: Mughal monuments (Taj Mahal, Red Forts) are key to India's tourism & cultural identity. Conservation issues (pollution, structural stability, visitor management).
- Historical Narratives & Identity Politics: Rulers' reigns (especially Aurangzeb) invoked in contemporary political/social discourses, leading to polarized interpretations. Understanding nuanced historical scholarship is crucial.
- Lessons in Governance: Insights into managing diverse populations, costs of over-expansion, interplay of religious policy & state stability, succession challenges.
Prelims-ready Notes
Jahangir (1605-1627)
- Original Name: Prince Salim. "Dastur-ul-Amal" (12 edicts).
- Revolts: Prince Khusrau (1606, Guru Arjan Dev executed); Prince Khurram (Shah Jahan); Mahabat Khan (1626).
- Nur Jahan: Married 1611. Powerful influence ("Nur Jahan Junta"), coins in her name.
- Military: Mewar submission (Rana Amar Singh, 1615); Kangra fort (1620); Deccan wars (Malik Ambar); Loss of Kandahar (1622) to Persia.
- Europeans: Capt. Hawkins (1608-11), Sir Thomas Roe (1615-19, got farman for EIC).
- Art/Culture: Painting zenith (Ustad Mansur - "Nadir-ul-Asr", Abul Hasan - "Nadir-uz-Zaman"); Architecture (Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daulah - first white marble & pietra dura, Shalimar Bagh Kashmir); Literature (Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri - autobiography).
- Justice: "Chain of Justice" (Adl-i-Zanjir).
Shah Jahan (1628-1658)
- Original Name: Prince Khurram.
- Military: Deccan (Ahmednagar annexed 1633, treaties with Bijapur & Golconda 1636); NWF (Kandahar regained 1638, lost again 1649; 3 failed campaigns); Central Asia (Balkh & Badakhshan campaign 1646-47 – costly failure).
- "Golden Age of Mughal Architecture": Taj Mahal (Agra, Ustad Ahmad Lahori), Red Fort & Shahjahanabad city (Delhi), Jama Masjid (Delhi), Moti Masjid (Agra Fort), Sheesh Mahal (Lahore Fort). Features: White marble, pietra dura, symmetry.
- Painting: Formal, court scenes, rich colours.
- Literature: Padshahnama, Shah Jahan Nama. Dara Shukoh's Sirr-i-Akbar (Upanishads translation), Majma-ul-Bahrain.
- Economy: Prosperous initially, strain later. Famine in Deccan/Gujarat (1630-32, account by Peter Mundy).
- Religious Policy: Initially more orthodox (1633 temple destruction order), later softened.
- War of Succession (1657-58): Dara Shukoh, Shuja, Aurangzeb, Murad. Battles of Dharmat & Samugarh. Aurangzeb won. Shah Jahan imprisoned.
Aurangzeb (Alamgir) (1658-1707)
- Title: Alamgir (Conqueror of the World).
- Religious Policy (Orthodox): Reimposed Jizya (1679). Destruction of temples (Kashi Vishwanath, Keshav Rai Mathura). Banned Nauroz, Jharokha Darshan, music at court. Appointed Muhtasibs. Execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur (1675).
- Rebellions: Jats, Satnamis (1672), Sikhs (Guru Gobind Singh - Khalsa 1699), Bundelas (Chhatrasal), Rajputs (Marwar - Durgadas Rathore, Mewar). Prince Akbar's revolt (1681).
- Deccan Policy ("Deccan Ulcer"): Spent last 26 years in Deccan (1681-1707). Annexed Bijapur (1686) and Golconda (1687). Protracted war with Marathas (Shivaji, Sambhaji - executed 1689, Rajaram, Tarabai). Consequences: Drained treasury, neglect of North, Jagirdari crisis, overstretched empire.
- Art/Culture: Decline in imperial patronage. Architecture (Moti Masjid in Red Fort Delhi, Badshahi Mosque Lahore, Bibi ka Maqbara Aurangabad). Literature (Fatawa-i-Alamgiri, Ruqaat-i-Alamgiri).
- Death: 1707, Ahmednagar.
UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs)
1. Who among the following Mughal Emperors shifted emphasis from illustrated manuscripts to album and individual portrait? (UPSC Prelims 2019)
Answer: (c) Jahangir
Explanation: Jahangir's reign is known for the peak of Mughal painting with a strong focus on realistic individual portraits, studies of birds and animals, moving away from manuscript illustration emphasis of Akbar's time.
2. "Shah Jahan's reign was a golden age of Mughal architecture, but it was also an age of underlying economic tensions." Discuss. (UPSC Mains - similar themes)
Direction for Answer:
- Golden Age of Architecture: Detail major architectural achievements (Taj Mahal, Red Fort, Shahjahanabad, Jama Masjid, Moti Masjid Agra). Highlight key features (marble, pietra dura, scale, symmetry).
- Underlying Economic Tensions: Discuss enormous cost of monuments and military campaigns (Kandahar, Balkh-Badakhshan). Impact of Deccan famine (1630-32). Strain on peasantry and state treasury. Contrast opulence of court with conditions of common people in affected areas. Conclude with a balanced view.
3. Critically examine Aurangzeb's Deccan policy. Why is it referred to as the 'Deccan ulcer' for the Mughal Empire? (UPSC Mains - common variation)
Direction for Answer:
- Aurangzeb's Objectives: Annexation of Bijapur/Golconda, crushing Marathas.
- Course of Policy: Campaigns, annexations, execution of Sambhaji, long personal involvement (26 years in Deccan).
- Consequences (Why "Ulcer"): Financial drain, manpower loss, neglect of North Indian administration, rise of Jagirdari crisis, failure to suppress Marathas (guerrilla warfare, popular support), moral exhaustion, weakening of imperial authority.
- Critical Examination: Was it entirely a failure? (Empire expanded territorially). Were there alternatives? How did it contribute to Mughal decline? Most historians agree it was a colossal misjudgment.
Original MCQs for Prelims
1. Which of the following pairs related to Mughal administration and art under Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb is NOT correctly matched?
Answer: (d) Ali Mardan Khan : Chief architect of the Taj Mahal under Shah Jahan
Explanation: Ustad Ahmad Lahori is generally credited as the chief architect of the Taj Mahal. Ali Mardan Khan was the Persian governor of Kandahar who defected to Shah Jahan and was a notable engineer involved in canal projects, but not the chief architect of the Taj.
2. Arrange the following events from the reign of Aurangzeb in chronological order:
1. Reimposition of Jizya
2. Execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur
3. Annexation of Golconda
4. Revolt of Prince Akbar
Answer: (a) 2 – 1 – 4 – 3
Explanation:
Execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur (1675) - (2)
Reimposition of Jizya (1679) - (1)
Revolt of Prince Akbar (1681) - (4)
Annexation of Golconda (1687) - (3)
3. Consider the following statements regarding the Deccan policy of the Mughals after Akbar:
1. Malik Ambar's guerrilla tactics posed a significant challenge to Jahangir's forces in Ahmednagar.
2. Shah Jahan successfully annexed Bijapur and Golconda, fully integrating them into the Mughal empire.
3. Aurangzeb's prolonged military engagement in the Deccan is often cited as a major factor in the decline of the Mughal Empire.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Answer: (a) 1 and 3 only
Explanation: Statement 1 is correct. Statement 2 is incorrect; Shah Jahan made treaties with Bijapur and Golconda making them accept suzerainty, but they were fully annexed only by Aurangzeb. Statement 3 is correct; the "Deccan Ulcer" theory points to this.
Original Descriptive Questions for Mains
1. "The reigns of Jahangir and Shah Jahan represented the cultural zenith of the Mughal Empire, while that of Aurangzeb, despite territorial expansion, marked the beginning of its political and economic unraveling." Elaborate with suitable examples.
Key Points/Structure for Answering:
- Introduction: Briefly state the contrasting legacies of these rulers.
- Jahangir & Shah Jahan - Cultural Zenith:
- Jahangir: Peak of painting (realism, nature studies, portraiture – Ustad Mansur, Abul Hasan), distinctive architecture (Itimad-ud-Daulah's tomb, gardens), literary contributions (Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri).
- Shah Jahan: "Golden Age of Architecture" (Taj Mahal, Red Fort, Jama Masjid – characteristics like marble, pietra dura), patronage of painting, music, literature (Dara Shukoh's translations).
- Aurangzeb - Territorial Expansion & Political/Economic Unraveling:
- Territorial Expansion: Annexation of Bijapur, Golconda; empire at its largest.
- Political Unraveling: Alienating religious policies (Jizya, temples), Rajput wars, endless Maratha conflict, Sikh rebellion, Jat and Satnami uprisings. Neglect of North Indian administration.
- Economic Unraveling: Drain of treasury due to Deccan wars, Jagirdari crisis, agrarian distress, impact on trade and production in conflict zones.
- Analysis: Connect cultural patronage (or lack thereof under Aurangzeb) to their political priorities and economic conditions. Show how Aurangzeb's policies, despite expanding the empire, created deep fissures and depleted resources.
- Conclusion: Reiterate how the period saw both the peak and the initiation of decline, with Aurangzeb's reign being a critical turning point.
2. Evaluate the factors that contributed to the numerous rebellions during Aurangzeb's reign. To what extent can his religious policies be held singularly responsible for the widespread unrest?
Key Points/Structure for Answering:
- Introduction: Acknowledge the prevalence of rebellions during Aurangzeb's rule.
- Factors Contributing to Rebellions:
- Religious Policies: Jizya, temple destruction, execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur – explain how these alienated various groups (Rajputs, Marathas, Sikhs, Hindus in general).
- Agrarian Distress: High revenue demand, exploitation by jagirdars, leading to peasant uprisings (Jats, Satnamis).
- Political Ambitions of Local Chieftains/Groups: Desire for autonomy or independence (Marathas, Bundelas, some Rajput factions).
- Assertion of Regional Identities: Growing consciousness among groups like Marathas and Sikhs.
- Aurangzeb's Centralizing Tendencies: Clashing with local power structures.
- Prolonged Deccan Wars: Causing economic hardship and neglect of other regions, leading to administrative breakdown.
- Extent of Religious Policies' Responsibility:
- Acknowledge their significant role in causing disaffection and providing ideological justification for some revolts.
- However, argue against singular responsibility by highlighting the interplay of economic, political, and social factors. (Cite historians like Satish Chandra or Irfan Habib who emphasize structural crises).
- Provide examples where rebellions had strong socio-economic roots (e.g., Satnami, Jat revolts initially).
- Conclusion: Conclude that while Aurangzeb's religious policies were a major irritant and a catalyst for unrest, they acted in conjunction with deeper socio-economic and political issues to create a climate of widespread rebellion that weakened the empire.