Introduction: The Mughal Era
The Mughal era (roughly 1526-1857, with its zenith from Akbar to Aurangzeb, c. 1556-1707) represents a period of profound political, social, economic, and cultural transformation in India. Mughal society was hierarchical and diverse, with a complex interplay of indigenous and foreign elements.
It witnessed remarkable achievements in art, architecture, literature, and music, leading to a unique composite culture. While the Emperor and nobility lived in opulence, the lives of common people varied. Religious policies oscillated between syncretism and orthodoxy, influencing social harmony and state stability. This period laid deep foundations for many aspects of modern Indian life and heritage.
(Sources: NCERT Class 7 "Our Pasts - II", Class 12 "Themes in Indian History Part II"; Satish Chandra, "History of Medieval India"; IGNOU MA History MHI-04, MHI-05)
Religion: Syncretism, Orthodoxy, and Popular Movements
Islam
Official religion, Sunni Islam predominant. Shia community also present (Iranis). Ulema played influential role.
Sufism
Powerful spiritual force. Chishti Silsilah popular. Naqshbandi (Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi) gained prominence, advocating strict Sharia. Qadiri Silsilah also active (Dara Shukoh was a disciple).
Dargahs remained vital centers, attracting both Muslims and Hindus.
Hinduism
Religion of the vast majority. Bhakti movement flourished, impacting regional languages.
Vaishnavism (Tulsidas, Surdas, Mirabai, Chaitanya, Vallabhacharya), Shaivism, Shaktism prevalent. Periods of tolerance (Akbar's Jizya abolition) and orthodoxy (Aurangzeb's policies).
Sikhism
Evolved from pacifist sect to organized, militant community. Conflict with Mughals (Guru Arjan Dev, Guru Tegh Bahadur executions).
Militarization by Guru Hargobind. Khalsa founded by Guru Gobind Singh (1699), adopting Five K's.
Christianity
Jesuit missionaries invited to Akbar's court. European trading companies established churches. Conversion efforts limited.
Syncretism & Orthodoxy
Syncretic trends (Akbar's Sulh-i-Kul, Dara Shukoh's Majma-ul-Bahrain) fostered cultural synthesis (Ganga-Jamuni Tehzeeb).
Orthodox revivalism (Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi, Naqshbandi order) advocated strict Sharia, influencing Aurangzeb's policies.
Language and Literature
Persian Literature: Court & Elite
Official language of administration and high culture. Vast historical works (Akbarnama, Ain-i-Akbari by Abul Fazl; Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh by Badauni; Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri; Padshahnama).
Poetry flourished (Faizi, Urfi, Bedil), Sabk-i-Hindi style. Extensive translations of Sanskrit texts (Mahabharata as Razmnama, Upanishads by Dara Shukoh). Insha (epistolography) was a developed art form.
Hindi Literature: Bhakti & Ritikal
Reached new heights, especially Bhakti poetry (Tulsidas - Ramcharitmanas; Surdas - Sursagar; Mirabai; Ashtachhap poets).
Ritikal poetry (courtly themes, eroticism, poetics) gained prominence later (Keshavdas, Bihari Lal Chaube, Bhushan - heroic poetry praising Shivaji). Patronized by emperors (Akbar) and nobles (Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan).
Urdu: Emergence & Prominence
Emerged as a distinct literary language from Persian, Arabic, Turkish, and local dialects. Early development in Deccan Sultanates (Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah, Wali Deccani).
Gained literary status in North India in 18th century (Mir Taqi Mir, Sauda, Dard). Initially used by Sufis, army, and marketplaces; later adopted by elite.
Regional Languages & Sanskrit
Regional languages like Bengali (Vaishnava Padavali, Mangalkavyas), Marathi (Varkari poetry, Bakhars), Punjabi (Adi Granth, Sufi poetry), Gujarati, Rajasthani, Odia flourished.
Sanskrit continued to be studied under Hindu patronage (Jagannatha Panditaraja). Translations into Persian show continued interaction and importance.
Art and Architecture
Mughal Architecture: A Grand Evolution
Babur & Humayun (Early Phase)
Limited activity due to instability. Babur built mosques (Panipat, Sambhal). Humayun's Dinpanah, his tomb's initial planning.
Akbar (Maturity & Synthesis: 1556-1605)
Predominant red sandstone, fusion of trabeate and arcuate, Indian motifs. Key works: Humayun's Tomb (precursor to Taj, first Charbagh & double dome), Agra Fort (Jahangiri Mahal), Fatehpur Sikri (Buland Darwaza, Jama Masjid, Shaikh Salim Chishti's Tomb, Diwan-i-Khas, Jodha Bai's Palace).
Jahangir (Transition: 1605-1627)
Shift to white marble, increased pietra dura, more delicate. Key works: Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daulah ("Baby Taj", first full marble and extensive pietra dura), Jahangir's Tomb (Lahore), Mughal Gardens (Shalimar, Nishat in Kashmir).
Shah Jahan (Zenith/Golden Age: 1628-1658)
Culmination of style. Extensive white marble, refined pietra dura, bulbous domes, cusped arches, symmetry, grandeur. Key works: Taj Mahal (pinnacle, Ustad Ahmad Lahori), Red Fort Delhi (Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-i-Khas, Moti Masjid), Jama Masjid Delhi, Moti Masjid Agra, Shalimar Gardens Lahore.
Aurangzeb (Decline: 1658-1707)
Decline in patronage and quality due to austerity and wars. Fewer monumental projects. Key works: Badshahi Mosque Lahore, Bibi ka Maqbara (smaller Taj imitation), Moti Masjid Red Fort.
Mughal Painting: A Unique School
A distinct miniature painting tradition synthesizing Persian Safavid and indigenous Indian styles. Its origins trace back to Humayun bringing Persian masters Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad.
Akbar Period (Foundation & Flourishing)
Imperial Karkhana established. Large-scale manuscript illustrations (Tutinama, Hamzanama, Akbarnama, Razmnama). Key features: dynamism, vibrant colors, crowded compositions, historical narratives, portraiture. Artists: Daswanth, Basawan, Keshav Lal.
Jahangir Period (Zenith/Climax)
Focus on individual album paintings. Key features: realistic portraiture, exquisite nature studies (birds, animals, flowers by Ustad Mansur), European influence (shading, perspective, halo). Fine brushwork, delicate colors. Artists: Abul Hasan, Ustad Mansur, Bishandas.
Shah Jahan Period (Formalization)
Continued patronage, but more formal, rigid, technically perfect. Lavish gold, rich pigments, intricate ornamentation. Focus on imperial grandeur, darbar scenes, idealized portraits. Less naturalism. Artists: Bichitr, Chitarman.
Aurangzeb Period (Decline)
Significant decline in imperial patronage due to orthodoxy and financial constraints. Imperial karkhana reduced. Artists dispersed to provincial courts (Rajasthan, Pahari regions, Awadh), leading to flourishing regional schools.
Themes included portraits, court scenes, historical events, hunting, nature studies, literary illustrations, allegorical subjects. Techniques involved miniature format, natural pigments, gold/silver, fine brushwork, and teamwork.
Music
Harmony and Patronage
Patronage & Key Figures
Music flourished under imperial patronage, especially Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan. Akbar himself was a connoisseur.
Tansen (Miyan Tansen, c. 1500-1589): Legendary musician at Akbar's court, one of the "Navratnas." Credited with new Ragas (Miyan ki Malhar, Darbari Kanada). Master of Dhrupad style.
Other musicians: Baz Bahadur, Baba Ram Das, Baiju Bawra. Ain-i-Akbari lists 36 musicians at Akbar's court.
Forms, Synthesis & Decline
Dominant Forms: Dhrupad. Khayal gained prominence later. Qawwali (Sufi devotional music) was popular. Lighter forms like Tarana, Thumri, Dadra also evolved.
Instruments: Sitar, Tabla, Rudra Veena, Surmandal, Pakhawaj, Rabab, Sarangi, Flute.
Synthesis: Hindustani classical music evolved as a blend of Perso-Arabic and Indian traditions. Treatises like Rag Darpan written.
Decline under Aurangzeb: Banned vocal music at court (c. 1668) due to orthodox policies. However, instrumental music for state ceremonies continued, and music thrived privately in provincial centers and Sufi shrines.
Science and Technology
Innovation and Stagnation
While traditional knowledge systems were well-developed, this was a period of relative stagnation in fundamental scientific breakthroughs compared to contemporary Europe.
Astronomy
Strong tradition of observational astronomy, interest in astronomical tables (Zij). No major theoretical breakthroughs; Ptolemaic model accepted. Observatories (Jantar Mantars) built later (18th century) by Raja Sawai Jai Singh II.
Mathematics
Continued traditional Indian and Perso-Arabic mathematics. Works on arithmetic, algebra, geometry. Lilavati remained a standard text, translated into Persian.
Medicine
Unani Tibb (Greco-Arabic) patronized. Ayurveda widely practiced. Some interaction. No significant advancements in surgery, anatomy comparable to European developments. Inoculation for smallpox was practiced.
Military Technology
Efficient use of gunpowder artillery (Topkhana), cannons, firearms. Babur's success partly due to artillery. Metallurgy for weapons (Wootz steel) high quality. War elephants still used.
Agricultural Technology
Continued traditional tools: wooden plough, Persian wheel. Introduction/spread of new crops (tobacco, maize, potato, chili). No major innovations in implements boosting productivity.
Shipbuilding
Indian ships (Gujarat, Malabar, Bengal) large, well-built for trade. Naval technology for warfare lagged European powers. Mughals generally lacked strong imperial navy.
Conceptual Comparison: Innovation Trends
A simplified visual representation of comparative scientific & technological innovation:
This conceptual chart illustrates a debated historical perspective on the relative pace of fundamental scientific advancements. Reasons for the gap include lack of deep interest in empirical methods, social structure disconnects, and educational emphasis on tradition rather than experimentation.
Social Structure and Social Life
The Emperor & Royal Household
Apex of society: Emperor (Badshah) was the supreme authority, considered semi-divine ("Shadow of God on Earth" - Zil-i-Ilahi). Immense power, wealth, and prestige.
Elaborate court rituals: Jharokha Darshan, Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-i-Khas.
Influential Royal Women like Nur Jahan, Mumtaz Mahal, Jahanara Begum, Roshanara Begum.
The Nobility (Umara/Amirs)
Heterogeneous and diverse, including Turanis, Iranis, Afghans, Sheikhzadas, Rajputs, and Marathas.
Lived in extreme luxury, maintained large households, patronized arts. Dependent on Emperor for Mansab and Jagir. Escheat system debated.
The Zamindars (Intermediaries)
Broad class of landholders: Autonomous Chieftains, Intermediary Zamindars, Primary Zamindars.
Wielded considerable local influence, maintained armed retainers. Relationship with state varied, sometimes collaborators, sometimes rebels.
The Middle Strata (Ahl-i-Khidmat)
Growing and important segment: Lower-ranking Mansabdars, officials, clerks, Qanungos.
Included professionals like Ulema, Pandits, Hakims, Vaidyas, artists, poets, and a significant class of merchants & traders (Sarrafs, Dallals).
The Common People (Awam-i-Nas)
Vast majority: Peasants (Raiyyat/Asami) - backbone of economy, lived modestly, subject to revenue demands.
Also Artisans & Craftspeople (highly skilled), Labourers, Servants, and Slaves (not on scale of Americas).
Position of Women
Upper Class Women:
Common Women:
Social Evils:
Customs, Festivals, and Pastimes
Festivals:
Pastimes:
Food and Dress
Food:
Dress:
Education System
Muslim Education:
Hindu Education:
Female education: Largely informal, confined to affluent families. Emphasis on rote learning, less on critical inquiry or scientific experimentation.