Maratha Swarajya: A Digital Explorer

Charting the Rise, Consolidation, and Legacy of the Maratha Empire under Shivaji Maharaj and the Peshwas.

Explore the Legacy

Introduction & Summary

The rise of the Marathas in the 17th and 18th centuries represents a crucial phase in Indian history, marking a formidable challenge to Mughal supremacy and significantly shaping the political landscape of pre-colonial India. This ascent was rooted in a unique combination of geographical advantages, socio-religious movements fostering a distinct Maratha identity, and the political experience gained by Marathas serving Deccan Sultanates.

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj laid the foundation of an independent Maratha Swarajya through military prowess, astute administration, and a vision of self-rule. After Shivaji, the Maratha state navigated through periods of intense struggle, notably under Sambhaji, and a protracted War of Independence led by Rajaram and Tarabai. The 18th century witnessed the ascendancy of the Peshwas, who became de facto rulers, transforming the Maratha kingdom into a vast empire or confederacy. This period saw great expansion under Baji Rao I and Balaji Baji Rao, culminating in the tragic Third Battle of Panipat (1761). Despite this setback, Maratha power revived, only to eventually succumb to the British through the Anglo-Maratha Wars. This topic explores the multifaceted rise, consolidation, expansion, and eventual decline of Maratha power.

Sources: Information is synthesized from NCERT Class VII ("Our Pasts II," Chapter 4 & 10), NCERT Class XII ("Themes in Indian History Part II"), Satish Chandra's "History of Medieval India," Bipan Chandra's "History of Modern India" / Spectrum's "A Brief History of Modern India," IGNOU B.A. History course materials (EHI-03, EHI-04), and works by historians like Jadunath Sarkar and Stewart Gordon.

Background to Maratha Rise: Factors

Geographical Setting

  • Hilly Terrain: Western Ghats/Sahyadris fostered guerilla warfare (*ganimi kava*).
  • Forts: Natural defensive strongholds.
  • Limited Agricultural Surplus: Frugal lifestyle, spurred need for external resource mobilization (Chauth/Sardeshmukhi).
  • Local Identity: Distinct geography contributed to strong local identity.

Socio-Cultural Factors

  • Bhakti Movement: Saints like Jnaneshwar, Namdev, Eknath, Tukaram, Samarth Ramdas preached equality in Marathi.
  • "Maharashtra Dharma": Fostered shared cultural & religious identity, debated political connotation.
  • Maratha Identity: These factors collectively forged a distinct Maratha identity, base for unity.

Political Experience

  • Service in Deccan Sultanates: Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golconda as soldiers (bargirs, siledars) & officials (Deshmukhs, Deshpandes).
  • Shahji Bhonsle: Shivaji's father, prominent noble in Ahmednagar & Bijapur, held significant jagirs.
  • Gained valuable experience in warfare, administration, and diplomacy.

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj (1627/1630 – 1680)

Founder of the Maratha Swarajya

Born at Shivneri fort, son of **Shahji Bhonsle** and **Jijabai**. His exact birth year is debated (1627 or 1630). NCERT uses 1630.

  • Jijabai: Deeply influenced his character, instilling love for independence and epic heroes.
  • Dadoji Konddeo: Shahji's agent and Shivaji's guardian, trained him in administration and warfare.
  • Guru Ramdas: Spiritual teacher. Direct political influence is debated.
  • Began career by capturing forts like **Torna (1646)**.

Key Conflicts & Victories:

  • Defeat of Afzal Khan (1659): Killed Bijapur general at Pratapgad using *wagh nakh*.
  • Night Attack on Shaista Khan (1663): Humiliated Mughal governor in Lal Mahal, Pune.
  • Sack of Surat (1664, 1670): Plundered wealthy Mughal port city twice.
  • Treaty of Purandar (1665): With Mughal general Jai Singh I; ceded 23 forts.
  • Dramatic Escape from Agra (1666): From Aurangzeb's house arrest.
  • Coronation (1674): Formally crowned Chhatrapati at Raigad by Gaga Bhatt. Legitimized independent Swarajya. Assumed titles like *Haindava Dharmoddharak*.
  • Southern Campaigns (1677-78): Captured Jinji (Gingee) and Vellore, extending Maratha influence.

Shivaji's Administration: Ashtapradhan Mandal

A council of eight ministers, primarily advisors, not hereditary posts (initially).

Peshwa (Mukhya Pradhan)

Prime Minister; general administration, finance, welfare.

Amatya/Majumdar

Finance Minister; managed accounts.

Sachiv/Surunavis

Secretary; prepared royal letters and charters.

Mantri/Waqia-Navis

Interior Minister/Chronicler; intelligence, court affairs.

Senapati/Sar-i-Naubat

Commander-in-Chief; managed the army, military affairs.

Sumant/Dabir

Foreign Minister; advised on relations with foreign states.

Nyayadhish

Chief Justice; administered civil and criminal justice.

Panditrao

Ecclesiastical Head; religious matters, grants, charity.

Revenue System

  • Land Revenue: Based on measurement (*kathi*), state share 33%, later 40%. Preferred cash salaries, discouraged Jagirdari. Aimed for Ryotwari.
  • Chauth: 1/4th of standard revenue from territories outside Swarajya, as tribute to avoid raids.
  • Sardeshmukhi: Additional 1/10th levy, based on claim as hereditary Sardeshmukh.

Military Organization

  • Strong Hill Forts: Backbone of defense, ~240 forts. Each with Killedar, Sabnis, Karkhanis.
  • Organized Army: Well-organized, disciplined, centrally paid. Infantry (Mavle) & Cavalry (Bargirs preferred over Siledars).
  • Guerilla Warfare (*ganimi kava*): Highly effective in Deccan terrain.
  • Navy: First Indian ruler to recognize importance of navy. Protected Konkan coastline, challenged Siddis and Europeans.
  • Strict Discipline: Respect for women, cultivators, religious places during campaigns. Plunder was state property.

Significance & Legacy: Forged Marathas into a formidable force, successfully challenged Mughals, established independent Swarajya. Administration based on justice, welfare, and religious tolerance. Vision of "Hindavi Swarajya" inspired generations. Indian Navy's new ensign (Sept 2022) is inspired by Shivaji's seal.

Struggle & War of Independence

Sambhaji (1680-1689)

  • Eldest son, succeeded Shivaji after struggle.
  • Faced full might of Aurangzeb who came to Deccan (1682).
  • Sheltered Aurangzeb's rebellious son, Prince Akbar II.
  • Captured and **executed by Aurangzeb in 1689** for refusing to convert to Islam, along with his advisor Kavi Kalash. A heroic sacrifice that intensified Maratha resistance.

Rajaram (1689-1700) & Tarabai (1700-1707)

The Maratha War of Independence (1689-1707)

  • Rajaram: Shivaji's younger son, escaped to **Jinji (Gingee)**, which became capital-in-exile. Continued war, created **Pratinidhi** post.
  • Tarabai: Rajaram's widow, declared minor son **Shivaji II** as Chhatrapati and became regent.
  • A courageous and capable leader, she continued resistance against Aurangzeb with vigor, saving the Maratha state.

Shahu I & The Rise of Peshwas

Shahu (Sambhaji's son), released by Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah I in 1707. This led to a civil war between Shahu (Satara) and Tarabai (Kolhapur). Shahu was crucially supported by Balaji Vishwanath.

The Architect Peshwas: Expansion and Zenith

The Third Battle of Panipat (1761)

Causes:

  • Maratha assertion in Punjab (drove out Abdali's governor).
  • Abdali's ambition to reclaim Punjab & plunder North India.
  • Invitations to Abdali from Rohilla chief **Najib-ud-Daula** & **Shuja-ud-Daula** (Awadh).
  • Maratha diplomatic failures (no alliances with Rajputs, Jats).

Course:

  • Maratha army led by **Sadashivrao Bhau** & **Vishwasrao** (Peshwa's son).
  • Abdali supported by Najib-ud-Daula (Rohillas) & Shuja-ud-Daula (Awadh).
  • Marathas suffered a **decisive defeat**. Commanders like **Ibrahim Khan Gardi** (artillery) perished.

Consequences:

  • Devastating loss of life for Marathas, including key leaders.
  • **Balaji Baji Rao died** soon after.
  • Temporarily shattered Maratha military power & prestige.
  • Halted Maratha advance into North India.
  • Created a power vacuum in North India, indirectly aiding English East India Company.
  • However, Maratha power revived within a decade under Madhavrao I.

Maratha Administration & Military Under Peshwas

Central & Provincial Administration

  • Chhatrapati as Nominal Head: Titular ruler after Shahu.
  • Peshwa as De Facto Ruler: Real power center in **Pune**.
  • Huzur Daftar: Peshwa's secretariat in Pune, maintained records.
  • Saranjams (Jagirs): Territories granted to chiefs for military service, unlike Shivaji's cash salaries.
  • Local Officials: *Kamavisdars*, *Mamlatdars* for revenue. Patils & Kulkarnis at village level.

Revenue System

  • Chauth & Sardeshmukhi: Primary income sources from vast territories.
  • Land Revenue: Methods varied, less uniform than Shivaji's time, dependent on local sardars.

Military

  • Shift in Emphasis: From state-paid infantry to cavalry fielded by hereditary sardars.
  • Modernization: Employed European officers (e.g., **Ibrahim Khan Gardi**) for artillery.
  • Discipline: Generally less disciplined & cohesive than Shivaji's army due to feudal structure.

Maratha Confederacy

  • Loose union of powerful, semi-independent chiefs:
    • Scindia (Gwalior)
    • Holkar (Indore)
    • Gaekwad (Baroda)
    • Bhonsle (Nagpur)
    • (Pawars of Dhar)
  • Recognized Peshwa as head but autonomous internally.
  • Strengths: Facilitated rapid expansion.
  • Weaknesses: Internal rivalries, lack of central control hampered united action, exploited by British.

Post-Panipat Maratha Powers & Anglo-Maratha Wars

Recovery under Madhavrao I (Peshwa, 1761-1772)

An able Peshwa, successfully restored Maratha prestige and power post-Panipat. Defeated Nizam, Hyder Ali. Reasserted control over North Indian affairs, brought Emperor Shah Alam II back to Delhi (1772).

Internal Squabbles & Prominent Chiefs (Late 18th Century)

Madhavrao's early death led to intense power struggles (Narayanrao, Raghunath Rao, Sawai Madhavrao, Nana Phadnavis). This infighting severely weakened the state.

Key Figures:

  • Mahadji Scindia (Gwalior): Dominant in North Indian politics, controlled Delhi, modernized army with French officers.
  • Ahilyabai Holkar (Indore): Ruled with wisdom, justice, piety (1767-1795). Known for good governance, public works.
  • Nana Phadnavis: Astute statesman, "Maratha Machiavelli." Managed affairs during Sawai Madhavrao's minority, resisted British.
First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-1782)

Triggered by British involvement in succession disputes (supporting Raghunath Rao). Marathas united (Nana Phadnavis, Mahadji Scindia). Ended with **Treaty of Salbai (1782)**, largely restoring status quo, British retained Salsette.

Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-1805)

Internal divisions, Peshwa Baji Rao II's incompetence exploited by British (Lord Wellesley). **Treaty of Bassein (1802)**: Peshwa accepted subsidiary alliance. Other chiefs resisted but defeated separately. Significant territorial losses, British paramountcy asserted.

Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1818)

Final attempt by Peshwa Baji Rao II & chiefs to throw off British control. Decisively defeated. **Peshwaship abolished**, Baji Rao II pensioned off. Most territories annexed; small princely states continued under British suzerainty. **End of Maratha political power.**

UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Prelims MCQs (with Answer & Explanation)
  1. Which of the following statements accurately describes 'Chauth' as collected by the Marathas?
    (a) A tax levied on all agricultural produce within the Maratha Swarajya.
    (b) One-tenth of the revenue claimed as hereditary right by the Maratha king.
    (c) A tribute amounting to one-fourth of the revenue collected from territories outside Swarajya to avoid Maratha raids.
    (d) A religious tax imposed on non-Muslims within the Maratha territories.

    Answer: (c)

    Explanation: Chauth was 1/4th of revenue collected from non-Maratha territories as protection money. Sardeshmukhi was the additional 1/10th hereditary claim.

  2. Consider the following personalities associated with the Maratha Empire:
    1. Sadashivrao Bhau
    2. Nana Phadnavis
    3. Ibrahim Khan Gardi
    4. Dadoji Konddeo
    Which of the above were associated with the Third Battle of Panipat (1761)?
    (a) 1 and 3 only
    (b) 1, 2 and 3 only
    (c) 1, 3 and 4 only
    (d) All of the above

    Answer: (a)

    Explanation: Sadashivrao Bhau was the Maratha commander-in-chief. Ibrahim Khan Gardi commanded the Maratha artillery. Nana Phadnavis rose to prominence after Panipat. Dadoji Konddeo was Shivaji's guardian, much earlier.

  3. The Mughal Farman of 1719, secured by Balaji Vishwanath, was significant because it:
    (a) Abolished the Mughal Empire and declared Maratha supremacy.
    (b) Granted the Marathas the right to mint coins in the name of the Chhatrapati throughout India.
    (c) Formally recognized Shahu's Swarajya and granted rights to Chauth and Sardeshmukhi over six Mughal subahs in the Deccan.
    (d) Led to an immediate alliance between the Mughals and Marathas against Ahmad Shah Abdali.

    Answer: (c)

    Explanation: The 1719 Farman legitimized Maratha claims in the Deccan, providing a legal basis for their collections and rule.

Mains Questions (with Approach)
  • "Shivaji was not merely a military conqueror but also an enlightened administrator." Discuss.

    Approach: Briefly mention his military achievements. Focus on his administrative reforms: Ashtapradhan, revenue system (discouraging jagirs, measurement, Chauth/Sardeshmukhi principles), military organization (discipline, forts, navy), promotion of Marathi, justice, and attempts at welfare. Conclude on his multifaceted genius.

  • Analyze the factors responsible for the rise of Maratha power in the 17th century.

    Approach: Discuss geographical factors (terrain, forts), socio-religious factors (Bhakti movement, Maharashtra Dharma, Marathi language), political factors (experience in Deccan Sultanates, decline of Bijapur/Ahmednagar), military factors (guerilla tactics), and crucially, Shivaji's leadership and vision.

  • What were the causes of the Third Battle of Panipat? What were its consequences?

    Approach: Causes: Maratha expansionism (Punjab), Abdali's ambitions, role of Najib-ud-Daula and Shuja-ud-Daula, Maratha diplomatic failures, logistical issues. Consequences: Heavy Maratha losses, death of Peshwa, temporary setback to Maratha advance, power vacuum in North (indirectly helping EIC), but also note the resilience and recovery under Madhavrao I.

Current Affairs & Recent Developments

Indian Navy's New Ensign (Sept 2022)

Inspired by the octagonal seal (*Rajmudra*) of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, acknowledging his naval foresight and India's maritime heritage.

Conservation of Maratha Forts

Ongoing projects by ASI and Maharashtra state government for preservation and development of iconic forts like Raigad, Sinhagad, Panhala, boosting tourism and heritage. (e.g., Raigad Fort Development project).

Statue of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj in Mauritius (April 2023)

Unveiled by Deputy CM of Maharashtra, Devendra Fadnavis, and Mauritian PM Pravind Jugnauth, highlighting Shivaji's enduring international recognition and cultural ties.

Academic Discourse & Commemorations

Scholars continue to research and debate various aspects of Maratha history, Shivaji's governance, and the socio-economic impact. Events around Panipat anniversary (Jan 14) also occur.