The Shifting Sands of Power

• Hyderabad (1724): Founder: Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I (Mir Qamar-ud-din). Battle: Shakarkheda (1724) defeated Mubariz Khan. Nominally Mughal, virtually independent. Asaf Jahi dynasty. Subsidiary Alliance (1798).
• Awadh (1722): Founder: Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk (Mir Muhammad Amin). Successors: Safdar Jang (Mughal Wazir), Shuja-ud-Daula (Buxar 1764, Treaty of Allahabad 1765). Culture: Ganga-Jamuni Tehzeeb, Thumri, Kathak, Urdu poetry, Lucknowi architecture.
• Bengal:
  • Murshid Quli Khan (c. 1717): Capital Murshidabad, revenue reforms (Mal Jasmani).
  • Alivardi Khan (1740-1756): Seized power, faced Maratha raids (Bargis), ceded Orissa & paid Chauth. Prevented European fortifications.
  • Siraj-ud-Daulah (1756-57): Black Hole (disputed), Battle of Plassey (1757) - lost due to conspiracy (Mir Jafar, Jagat Seth). Economy: Prosperous (rice, sugar, silk, muslin, saltpeter).
• Sikhs:
  • Banda Bahadur (1708-16): Uprising post-Guru Gobind Singh.
  • Dal Khalsa, Jathas, Rakhi system: Period of resilience.
  • Misls (12): Sikh confederacies (Bhangi, Sukerchakia etc.).
  • Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1799-1839): Sukerchakia Misl. Unified Misls, capital Lahore. Secular admin. Modern army (Fauj-i-Ain, European officers like Allard, Ventura). Treaty of Amritsar (1809) with British (Sutlej boundary). Empire: Punjab, Kashmir, Multan, Peshawar.
• Mysore:
  • Hyder Ali (c. 1761-82): De facto ruler. Modernized army (French help). 1st Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69), Treaty of Madras.
  • Tipu Sultan (1782-99): "Tiger of Mysore." Reforms: calendar, coinage, trade, navy, rocket artillery. Conflicts: 2nd War (1780-84) - Treaty of Mangalore; 3rd War (1790-92) - Treaty of Seringapatam (lost half territory); 4th War (1799) - killed defending Seringapatam.
• Jats (Bharatpur): Peasant revolts (Gokla, Raja Ram). Badan Singh: Founder of Bharatpur state, fort at Deeg. Suraj Mal (1756-63): "Plato of Jat tribe." Expanded territory, palaces at Deeg. Neutral in 3rd Battle of Panipat, aided Marathas post-battle.
• Rajput States: Asserted independence. Internal strife, Maratha interference (Chauth). Jaipur (Amber): Raja Sawai Jai Singh (1699-1743) - statesman, astronomer. Founded Jaipur city. Jantar Mantars (Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Mathura, Varanasi). Marwar (Jodhpur): Ajit Singh (aided by Durgadas Rathore).
• Travancore: Martanda Varma (1729-58): Founder. Defeated Dutch at Battle of Colachel (1741). Dedicated kingdom to Padmanabhaswamy. Rama Varma (Dharma Raja, 1758-98): Defended against Tipu. Patron of arts.
• Rohilkhand: Afghans (Ali Muhammad Khan Rohilla). Clashed with Awadh, Marathas. Rohilla War (1774) - Awadh (with British help under Warren Hastings) defeated Rohillas.

• Continuity with Mughal System: Initially retained Mughal administrative structures, titles, revenue systems. Rulers were former Mughal governors/officials. Nominally acknowledged Mughal Emperor.
• Assertion of Autonomy: Achieved by making offices hereditary, independent control over military & finances, own foreign policy. E.g., Battle of Shakarkheda (Hyderabad), Murshid Quli Khan's reforms (Bengal).
• Reasons for Emergence: Decline of central Mughal authority, weak emperors, court factionalism, ambition of powerful nobles.

• Often originated from peasant/tribal uprisings or socio-religious movements.
• Characterized by strong military ethos & mobilization of local communities.
• Legitimacy derived from charismatic leadership or collective will (Dal Khalsa).

• Not a direct Mughal successor. Rose from existing Hindu kingdom (Wodeyars).
• Hyder Ali & Tipu Sultan: Model of military modernization & state-building to counter rivals & Europeans.
• Distinctive use of modern military techniques, attempts at industrial/trade promotion, active foreign policy.
• Tipu's reign highlights potential & challenges of resisting colonial expansion. Legacy remains debated (patriot vs. despot).

• Older historiography: 18th century as "anarchy," justifying British intervention.
• Revisionist historiography: Emphasizes regional dynamism, economic vibrancy (pre-Plassey Bengal), continuity of governance in successor states. Rise of new social groups, flourishing regional cultures, administrative innovation.

• States constantly engaged in complex alliances & conflicts (Marathas vs. Nizam, Mysore vs. Marathas & Nizam).
• Disunity & internal rivalry exploited by British EIC (divide and rule, Subsidiary Alliance).
• Failure of Indian states to unite against British was crucial for their subjugation.

• Some regions prospered (Bengal trade, Mysore industries), others suffered from constant warfare, raids, revenue extraction.
• Revenue farming (Ijaradari) often burdened peasantry.
• British conquest of Bengal (Plassey, Buxar) led to "Drain of Wealth," long-term consequences for Indian economy.

Q. (UPSC Prelims 2021) With reference to Indian history, consider the following statements:

1. The Dutch established their factories/warehouses on the east coast on lands granted to them by Gajapati rulers.
2. Alfonso de Albuquerque captured Goa from the Bijapur Sultanate.
3. The English East India Company established a factory at Madras on a plot of land leased from a representative of the Vijayanagara Empire.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(c) 1 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (b)

Hint/Explanation: Statement 1 is incorrect; Dutch presence on the east coast was generally later and through arrangements with local Nayakas or Golconda rulers, not primarily Gajapatis in this context. Statement 2 is correct (1510). Statement 3 is correct (Fort St. George, from Damarla Venkatadri Nayaka, a feudatory of Venkata III of Vijayanagara, in 1639). This question, while broader, touches on the political landscape where regional powers interacted with Europeans.

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Q. (UPSC Prelims 2010) What was the immediate reason for Ahmad Shah Abdali to invade India and fight the Third Battle of Panipat?

(a) He wanted to avenge the expulsion by Marathas of his viceroy Timur Shah from Lahore.

(b) The frustrated governor of Jullundhar Adina Beg Khan invited him to invade Punjab.

(c) He wanted to punish Mughal administration for non-payment of the revenues of the Chahar Mahal (Gujarat, Aurangabad, Berar and Bidar).

(d) He wanted to annex all the fertile plains of Punjab up to the borders of Delhi to his kingdom.

Answer: (a)

Hint/Explanation: The Marathas had expanded into Punjab and driven out Timur Shah, Abdali's son and viceroy in Lahore. This was a direct challenge to Abdali's authority in the region.

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Q. (UPSC Prelims - Sample) Which one of the following pairs is NOT correctly matched?

(a) Hyderabad : Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah

(b) Awadh : Saadat Khan

(c) Rohilkhand : Suraj Mal

(d) Travancore : Martanda Varma

Answer: (c)

Hint/Explanation: Suraj Mal was the famous Jat ruler of Bharatpur. Rohilkhand was associated with Afghan chiefs like Ali Muhammad Khan Rohilla or Najib-ud-Daula.

Q. (UPSC Mains 2017) "The Maratha politico-military system, which dominated the 18th-century Indian scene, was a complex interplay of feudal, monarchical, and confederate elements." Discuss.

Direction/Value Points for answering about other states in a similar vein:

• Introduce the specific state (e.g., Hyderabad, Awadh).
• Monarchical elements: The supreme authority of the Nizam/Nawab, hereditary succession (de facto).
• Feudal elements: Granting of jagirs/revenue assignments to nobles in return for service, sub-infeudation, powerful local zamindars.
• Administrative structure: Mix of Mughal legacy and regional innovations.
• Military: Reliance on nobles for troops, sometimes mercenary forces.
• Challenges: Internal rebellions, threat from neighbors (Marathas, other states, Europeans).

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Q. (UPSC Mains 2007) "The battles of Plassey and Buxar were battles of diplomacy and arms respectively." Comment.

Direction/Value Points:

• Plassey (1757): Emphasize diplomatic maneuvering, conspiracy (Mir Jafar, Jagat Seth, Rai Durlabh, Aminchand, Watson's forged treaty), Clive's bribery and exploitation of internal divisions within Siraj-ud-Daulah's camp. Actual fighting was minimal.
• Buxar (1764): Highlight it was a true military contest. Combined forces of Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daula, and Shah Alam II vs. EIC under Hector Munro. EIC's superior military discipline and strategy led to a decisive victory.
• Significance: Plassey initiated British control; Buxar confirmed it and extended influence beyond Bengal.

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Q. (UPSC Mains 2001) “The rise and fall of the an independent state in Mysore is a saga of courage and ability, and of the failure to build a viable alliance system.” Discuss.

Direction/Value Points:

• Courage and Ability:
  • Hyder Ali: Rise from obscurity, military genius (1st Anglo-Mysore War), administrative skills, army modernization.
  • Tipu Sultan: Innovations (rocketry, navy, trade), continued modernization, fierce resistance to British (2nd, 3rd, 4th Wars).
• Failure to Build Viable Alliances:
  • Persistent enmity with Marathas and Nizam, who often allied with the British against Mysore.
  • Tipu's attempts to get foreign aid (French, Turkish, Afghan) were largely unsuccessful or too late.
  • British diplomatic skill in isolating Mysore.
• Consequences: Despite their prowess, Mysore was overwhelmed by the combined strength of the British and their Indian allies, leading to its fall in 1799.

• Questions directly focusing on the details of each of these smaller successor states are less frequent than those on Mughals, Marathas, or major British policies.
• However, key figures (Nizam-ul-Mulk, Saadat Khan, Alivardi Khan, Ranjit Singh, Hyder/Tipu, Sawai Jai Singh, Martanda Varma), significant battles (Plassey, Buxar, Panipat, Colachel), and major treaties (Allahabad, Amritsar, Seringapatam) are important.
• Often, these states appear as context in questions about European expansion or Mughal decline.
• There's a trend towards understanding the nature of these states (e.g., successor state, new state) and their cultural contributions (Jaipur, Awadh).

• More analytical questions. Focus on:
  • The process of emergence of these states from Mughal decline.
  • Their administrative and economic policies.
  • Their interactions with the British and other Indian powers.
  • Specific case studies (Mysore, Bengal, Sikhs) are popular, especially their resistance or accommodation to British power.
  • The "18th-century debate" (anarchy vs. regional dynamism) forms an important backdrop.
  • Questions often require evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of these states.
• UPSC expects candidates to connect political developments with economic and cultural aspects.

The trend shows an expectation of nuanced understanding of the 18th century as a period of transition, with complex interplay between declining imperial power, rising regional forces, and encroaching colonialism.