Echoes & Expressions: India's Music & Dance

Journey through the Ancient Rhythms and Dynamic Movements of a Civilizational Heritage

Discover the Art Forms

Introduction & Summary

Indian music and dance are ancient, diverse, and deeply interwoven with the socio-religious and cultural fabric of the subcontinent. Rooted in sacred texts like the Natya Shastra (attributed to Bharata Muni), these art forms have evolved over millennia through royal patronage, temple traditions, folk expressions, and interactions with various cultures, notably the Perso-Arabic influences during the medieval period. Classical traditions like Hindustani and Carnatic music, and the eight recognized classical dance forms, coexist with a vast array of devotional and folk genres, reflecting India's rich intangible heritage. These forms are not merely entertainment but are considered pathways to spiritual realization, storytelling, and community bonding. (Source: Synthesized from CCRT website, Nitin Singhania's "Indian Art and Culture", NCERT Class XI "An Introduction to Indian Art Part-I", and general understanding from various cultural history texts.)

Core Content: Music and Dance

9.6.1: Music (Sangeet)

Music in India traditionally includes vocal music (geet), instrumental music (vadya), and dance (nritya).

A. Indian Classical Music Traditions:

Two major traditions, sharing common roots in Vedic chants and ancient musical theory (concepts of Raga, Tala, Swara) but diverging in style and presentation.

i. Hindustani Music (North India):
  • Evolution: From 13th century, synthesis of ancient Hindu traditions with Perso-Arabic influences (Sufis, Delhi Sultanate/Mughal courts).
  • Forms:
    • Dhrupad: Oldest, majestic, spiritual, emphasizes purity of raga/tala. Tansen was a master.
    • Khayal: ("imagination"). Gained prominence from 18th century. More romantic, lyrical, allows improvisation (taans). Attributed to Amir Khusrau in nascent form, developed by Sadarang, Adarang.
    • Tarana: Rhythmic, fast-paced, meaningless syllables/Persian/Arabic phonemes. Often attributed to Amir Khusrau.
    • Thumri: Semi-classical, romantic/devotional (Radha-Krishna). Focuses on emotional expression (Bhava). Lucknow and Benaras centers.
    • Dadra: Lighter than Thumri, lyrical.
    • Ghazal: Persian poetic form, adapted as light classical music. Themes of love, longing, philosophy.
  • Gharanas (Schools): Styles of Khayal singing associated with regions/lineages (e.g., Gwalior, Agra, Kirana, Jaipur-Atrauli, Patiala). (Nitin Singhania)
ii. Carnatic Music (South India):
  • Evolution: Greater continuity with ancient traditions, less Perso-Arabic influence. Flourished in South Indian courts (Vijayanagara, Tanjore, Mysore) and temples.
  • Key Figures:
    • Purandaradasa (1484–1564): Pitamaha (Father) of Carnatic Music. Codified early lessons.
    • Trinity of Carnatic Music (late 18th - early 19th century):
      • Tyagaraja: Devotional kritis in Telugu (Lord Rama).
      • Muthuswami Dikshitar: Kritis in Sanskrit (scholarship, Vilambita Kala).
      • Syama Sastri: Kritis in Telugu (Goddess Kamakshi), complex rhythms.
  • Forms:
    • Kriti: Principal compositional form (Pallavi, Anupallavi, Charanam). Involves Raga Alapana, Neraval, Kalpanaswaram.
    • Other forms: Varnam, Padam, Javali, Tillana.

B. Devotional Music:

Integral to religious life and Bhakti/Sufi movements.

  • Bhajans: Devotional songs (Meera Bai, Surdas, Kabir).
  • Kirtans: Call-and-response chanting (Vaishnavism, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu).
  • Abhangas: Devotional poetry for Lord Vitthala (Sant Tukaram, Namdev) in Maharashtra.
  • Qawwali: Sufi devotional music, energetic, at Dargahs. Aims for spiritual ecstasy. Associated with Amir Khusrau.
  • Shabad Kirtan (Gurbani Sangeet): Sikh hymns from Guru Granth Sahib.

C. Folk Music:

Extremely diverse, reflecting local customs, occupations, life events. Examples: Baul (Bengal), Bihugeet (Assam), Lavani (Maharashtra), Maand (Rajasthan), Pandavani (Chhattisgarh), Kajari (UP).

D. Patronage:

  • Imperial Courts: Mughals (Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan) were great patrons. Tansen in Akbar's court. Aurangzeb discouraged, but music continued in regional courts. (Satish Chandra)
  • Regional Courts: Rajput courts, Vijayanagara, Maratha rulers, Nawabs of Awadh, Nizams.
  • Temples: Historical centers for classical music (Carnatic, Dhrupad) and dance (Devadasis).
  • Sufi Khanqahs: Centers for Sufi music like Qawwali.
  • Amir Khusrau (13th-14th Century): Versatile poet, scholar, musician. Attributed with new Ragas (Yaman Kalyan), forms (Qawwali, Tarana, early Khayal), and invention of Sitar/Tabla (debated).

9.6.2: Dance

Indian dance is broadly classified into classical and folk.

A. Classical Dance Forms:

Highly structured, with codified movements, costumes, music. Based on Natya Shastra. Most evolved in temples, later courtly patronage. Sangeet Natak Akademi recognizes 8 forms:

i. Bharatanatyam (Tamil Nadu)

Oldest, from Sadirattam (Devadasis). Precise footwork (adavus), mudras, abhinaya. Ekaharya Abhinaya. Revived by Rukmini Devi Arundale.

ii. Kathak (North India)

From "Katha" (storytellers). Mughal/Rajput influence. Gharanas: Lucknow (grace), Jaipur (footwork, pirouettes), Benares.

iii. Kathakali (Kerala)

Stylized dance-drama. Elaborate makeup (Pacha, Kathi), towering headgear, epic themes. Vigorous, dramatic.

iv. Odissi (Odisha)

Temple traditions (Maharis, Gotipuas). Lyrical grace, fluid movements, sculpturesque poses, especially Tribhanga.

v. Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh)

Village origin, traditionally male dance-dramas (Bhagavatars). Unique Tarangam (dance on brass plate rim). Siddhendra Yogi.

vi. Mohiniattam (Kerala)

"Dance of the Enchantress." Graceful, lyrical, swaying movements. Lasya (feminine) dominant. White and gold costume.

vii. Sattriya (Assam)

From Sattras (Vaishnavite monasteries) by Srimanta Shankaradeva (15th C). Initially male monks (Bhokots). Recognized by SNA in 2000.

viii. Manipuri (Manipur)

Northeast India. Gentle, undulating movements, devotional. Themes of Krishna-Radha (Ras Leela). Sankirtana (UNESCO Intangible Heritage).

B. Folk Dances:

Innumerable vibrant forms across India, deeply connected to local culture, festivals, social events. Examples: Garba, Dandiya Raas (Gujarat); Bhangra, Giddha (Punjab); Bihu (Assam); Chhau (Odisha, Jharkhand, WB); Lavani (Maharashtra); Kalbelia (Rajasthan - UNESCO); Karakattam (TN); Ghoomar (Rajasthan).

Generally more spontaneous and less codified than classical forms, with community participation.

UPSC Examination Insights

3. Prelims-ready Notes (Factual & Concise)
  • Indian Classical Music: Two traditions - Hindustani (North), Carnatic (South).
  • Hindustani Music: Forms (Dhrupad-oldest, Tansen; Khayal-18th cent., Amir Khusrau; Tarana, Thumri, Dadra, Ghazal). Influence: Perso-Arabic synthesis. Gharanas: Regional schools (Gwalior, Agra, Kirana etc.).
  • Carnatic Music: Continuity with ancient traditions. Figures: Purandaradasa ("Father"), Trinity (Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar, Syama Sastri). Form: Kriti (main composition: Pallavi, Anupallavi, Charanam).
  • Devotional Music: Bhajans, Kirtans (Chaitanya), Abhangas (Maharashtra - Vitthala), Qawwali (Sufi, Amir Khusrau), Shabad Kirtan (Sikh).
  • Amir Khusrau: (13-14th C) Qawwali, Tarana, possibly Sitar/Tabla (debated).
  • Classical Dance: Roots in Natya Shastra. 8 recognized forms by Sangeet Natak Akademi.
  • Folk Dances: Diverse, regional, community participation (Garba, Bhangra, Bihu, Chhau, Lavani, Kalbelia-UNESCO).

Summary Table: Classical Dance Forms

Dance Form State of Origin Key Feature(s) / Associated Terms
Bharatanatyam Tamil Nadu Sadirattam, Ekaharya Abhinaya, Adavus, Rukmini Devi Arundale
Kathak North India Katha, Tatkar (footwork), Chakkar (pirouettes), Gharanas (Lucknow, Jaipur, Benares)
Kathakali Kerala Dance-drama, elaborate makeup (Pacha, Kathi), grand costumes, Mudras
Odissi Odisha Tribhanga, Maharis, Gotipuas, lyrical grace
Kuchipudi Andhra Pradesh Tarangam (dance on brass plate), traditionally male Bhagavathars
Mohiniattam Kerala Lasya dominant, gentle swaying movements, white/gold costume
Sattriya Assam From Sattras (Shankaradeva), Ankia Naat, Bhokots, recognized 2000
Manipuri Manipur Gentle movements, Ras Leela, Sankirtana (UNESCO), Pung Cholom
4. Mains-ready Analytical Notes
  • Synthesis and Evolution: Hindustani music as cultural synthesis (Perso-Arabic elements) vs. Carnatic music's perceived continuity. Dance forms' evolution from temple to court to stage.
  • Bhakti and Sufi Movements' Impact: Democratized music/religion, new devotional forms (Bhajan, Kirtan, Shabad, Qawwali, Abhangas), themes of love/devotion, challenged orthodoxies.
  • Patronage as a Double-Edged Sword: Nurtured arts (royal, temple) but decline led to stagnation. Post-independence revival by government/private institutions (Sangeet Natak Akademi, CCRT).
  • Continuity and Change: Classical forms adhere to ancient texts but continuously evolve. Folk forms show resilience.
  • Dance as a Storytelling Medium: Classical (Kathak, Kathakali, Kuchipudi) and folk dances as powerful narrative forms using Abhinaya and Mudras.
  • Gharanas in Hindustani Music: Distinct stylistic lineages preserving/developing raga interpretation, voice culture, improvisation; can lead to rigidity.
  • Social Context of Dance: Devadasi tradition faced stigma; revival involved "reforming" for urban audiences, debates on authenticity.
5. Current Affairs and Recent Developments

UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage:

  • Garba of Gujarat inscribed in December 2023.
  • Older inscriptions relevant: Sankirtana of Manipur (2013), Yoga (2016), Kumbh Mela (2017), Durga Puja in Kolkata (2021). (UNESCO ICH website, PIB)
  • India often nominates new elements.

GI Tags:

  • Maddalam of Palakkad (Kerala), a Kathakali percussion instrument, has a GI tag.

Government Schemes & Initiatives:

  • Ministry of Culture's Kala Sanskriti Vikas Yojana (KSVY): Financial assistance for promoting art and culture (repertory grants, cultural organizations support).
  • Scheme for Safeguarding the Intangible Cultural Heritage.
  • Initiatives by Sangeet Natak Akademi, CCRT, Zonal Cultural Centres (ZCCs) through festivals, workshops, scholarships, documentation. (Ministry of Culture website, PIB)

Festivals & Awards:

  • Major classical music/dance festivals (Khajuraho Dance Festival, Konark Dance Festival, Madras Music Season) continue.
  • Sangeet Natak Akademi Awards, Padma Awards recognize artists.
6. UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Prelims MCQs:

  1. Q. (UPSC Prelims 2018) With reference to the cultural history of India, consider the following statements:
    • 1. Most of the Tyagaraja Kritis are devotional songs in praise of Lord Krishna.
    • 2. Tyagaraja created several new ragas.
    • 3. Annamacharya and Tyagaraja are contemporaries.
    • 4. Annamacharya kirtanas are devotional songs in praise of Lord Venkateshwara.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    • (a) 1 and 3 only
    • (b) 2 and 4 only (Answer)
    • (c) 1, 2 and 3 only
    • (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

    Explanation: Tyagaraja Kritis are mostly in praise of Lord Rama (1 incorrect). Tyagaraja created new ragas (2 correct). Annamacharya (15th C) and Tyagaraja (18-19th C) are not contemporaries (3 incorrect). Annamacharya composed for Lord Venkateshwara (4 correct).

  2. Q. (UPSC Prelims 2014) With reference to the Indian history of art and culture, consider the following pairs:

    A famous piece of Indian art : Site

    • 1. A grand image of Buddha’s Mahaparinirvana with numerous celestial musicians above and the sorrowful figures of his followers below : Ajanta
    • 2. A huge image of Varaha Avatar (boar incarnation) of Vishnu, as he rescues Goddess Earth from the deep and chaotic waters, sculpted on rock : Mount Abu
    • 3. “Arjuna’s Penance”/ “Descent of Ganga” sculpted on the surface of huge boulders : Mamallapuram

    Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

    • (a) 1 and 2 only
    • (b) 3 only
    • (c) 1 and 3 only (Answer)
    • (d) 1, 2 and 3

    Explanation: Pair 2 is incorrect (Varaha image at Udayagiri caves, MP; Mount Abu has Dilwara temples).

Mains Questions:

  1. Q. (UPSC Mains 2018) The Bhakti movement received a remarkable re-orientation with the advent of Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. Discuss.

    Direction/Value Points: Introduce Chaitanya's role in popularizing Bhakti. Emphasis on Nama-Sankirtana as primary worship. Kirtan as medium for emotional devotion and community participation. Spread of Gaudiya Vaishnavism and associated musical/dance traditions (Manipuri Ras Leela). Focus on Madhurya Bhava.

  2. Q. "Classical Indian dance forms are not mere entertainment but profound expressions of spiritual, philosophical, and social narratives, reflecting a sophisticated aesthetic sensibility." Discuss.

    Direction/Value Points: Spiritual/Philosophical (Natya Shastra, temple origins, epic themes, Moksha). Social Narratives (storytelling, societal values, Devadasis' role). Aesthetic Sensibility (codified grammar, Nritta, Abhinaya, Mudras, costumes, music, rhythm).

7. Trend Analysis (Last 10 Years)

Prelims:

  • High Frequency: Consistently important area.
  • Factual & Specific: Tests knowledge of dance forms, states, features (Tarangam, Tribhanga), personalities (Trinity, Shankaradeva), terms (Gharana, Kriti).
  • Matching: Match-the-following questions are common.
  • UNESCO List: Recurring theme.
  • Distinguishing Features: Differentiating between similar options.

Mains:

  • Analytical & Thematic: Focus on evolution, impact of socio-religious movements, patronage, cultural synthesis, philosophical/aesthetic aspects.
  • Interconnections: Linking art forms with historical periods, social changes, regional developments.
  • Specific Art Forms: Sometimes focus on particular traditions.
  • Broader Themes: Indian cultural heritage, continuity and change, role of art in society.

UPSC expects a blend of factual knowledge (Prelims) and analytical understanding of socio-cultural/historical context (Mains).

8. Original MCQs for Prelims
  1. Q. Which of the following classical dance forms is primarily characterized by the 'Tribhanga' posture and has historical roots in the temple dances performed by 'Maharis' and 'Gotipuas'?
    • (a) Bharatanatyam
    • (b) Kathakali
    • (c) Odissi (Answer)
    • (d) Mohiniattam

    Explanation: The Tribhanga posture is a hallmark of Odissi dance. Maharis and Gotipuas were traditional performers associated with Odissi's origins.

  2. Q. Consider the following statements regarding Indian classical music:
    • 1. Khayal, a prominent form of Hindustani music, is older than Dhrupad and emphasizes rigid adherence to rhythmic cycles.
    • 2. Purandaradasa is renowned as the "Pitamaha" of Carnatic music and standardized its initial learning lessons.
    • 3. The Trinity of Carnatic music – Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar, and Syama Sastri – were contemporaries who significantly enriched the Kriti compositional form.

    Which of the above statements is/are correct?

    • (a) 1 and 2 only
    • (b) 2 and 3 only (Answer)
    • (c) 3 only
    • (d) 1, 2 and 3

    Explanation: Statement 1 is incorrect: Dhrupad is older than Khayal. Statement 2 is correct. Statement 3 is correct.

9. Original Descriptive Questions for Mains
  1. Q. "The evolution of Hindustani classical music is a testament to India's capacity for cultural synthesis, while Carnatic music largely represents continuity with ancient indigenous traditions." Critically evaluate this statement, highlighting key influences and distinct characteristics of both systems. (250 words)

    Key Points: Hindustani - Perso-Arabic influence (Sufism, Mughal), new Ragas/forms/instruments, patronage, Urdu/Persian lyrics. Carnatic - less external impact, older texts, temple traditions, saints' compositions, indigenous instruments, Sanskrit/Telugu/Tamil/Kannada. Critical Evaluation - common roots, both evolved, Hindustani retained soul, Carnatic also adapted (e.g., violin). Conclusion - broad truth, dynamic traditions.

  2. Q. Discuss the role of the Bhakti and Sufi movements in shaping the devotional music landscape of India. How did these musical traditions contribute to social harmony and cultural integration? (150 words)

    Key Points: Shaping Music - new forms (Bhajans, Kirtans, Qawwali), regional languages, emotional devotion, saint-composers. Social Harmony - challenged caste/orthodoxy, promoted love/compassion, music as shared platform (Qawwali for Hindus/Muslims), composite culture.

Conclusion & Significance

Indian music and dance are living traditions that encapsulate centuries of artistic evolution, spiritual seeking, and cultural expression. From the codified grammar of classical forms to the spontaneous joy of folk genres, they offer a profound insight into India's heritage. Patronage shifts, social reforms, and globalization have all impacted these arts, leading to periods of challenge and revival.

Significance:

  • Cultural Identity: Powerful markers of regional and national identity.
  • Spiritual Connection: Pathways to spiritual experience.
  • Social Cohesion: Foster community bonding and shared values.
  • Soft Power: Significant aspects of India's cultural diplomacy.
  • Economic Aspect: Support livelihoods for artists, artisans, and ancillary industries.

Way Forward:

  • Continued institutional support (government and private).
  • Leveraging technology for wider dissemination and archival.
  • Ensuring financial security and recognition for artists.
  • Promoting arts education for younger generations.
  • Balancing preservation of tradition with space for innovation.

The dynamism of Indian music and dance lies in their ability to honor their roots while adapting to contemporary realities, ensuring their continued relevance and vibrancy.